1. Walter B. Edgar, “South Carolina,” unpublished manuscript, Institute of Southern Studies, University of South Carolina, 1996, pp. 61, 62, 83–85. This manuscript is scheduled for publication by the University of South Carolina Press. The biographical information on Charleston cabinetmakers presented in this article is derived from Bradford L. Rauschenberg, Charleston Cabinetmakers, 1680–1820 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press for the Museum of Early Southern Decorative Arts [hereinafter cited as MESDA], forthcoming).

2. John Fyfe to Charles Desel, April 11, 1777, Charleston County Land Records, Miscellaneous (hereinafter cited as CCLRM), pt. 56, bk. P4, 1775–1777. Desel died in 1808 . His estate, worth nearly $15,000, included “A lot of Cabinet Maker’s Tools [and] Benches” (Charleston County Inventories [hereinafter cited as CCI], vol. D, 1800–1810, pp. 450–51). On September 28, 1775, Henrich Christof “Kefkin,” identified as a cabinetmaker of Osterholtz in Electoral Hanover, married Maria Margaretha Münch of Orangeburg County, South Carolina, in Charleston (St. John’s Lutheran Church Records, 1755–1787, South Carolina Historical Society, Charleston). Desel & Gesken (spelled “Gaskin”) are mentioned in 1784 in the Paul Cross Papers, 1768–1803, box 1, folder 8, 1783–1785, Manuscripts Department, South Carolina Library, Columbia. Jacob Sass emigrated from Hesse, Germany, to Charleston in 1773 at the age of twenty-three (N. Louise Bailey, ed., Biographical Directory of the South Carolina House of Representatives, vol. 4 [Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1984], p. 506). The cabinetmaking firm of Warner & Silberg is mentioned on October 25, 1788, in the South Carolina Court of Common Pleas, Judgement Rolls (hereinafter cited as SCCCPJR), box 135B, no. 25A, for a promissory note owed them since 1786. An announcement of the dissolution of their partnership appeared in the February 7, 1787, issue of the Charleston Morning Post and Daily Advertiser. Silberg died in December 1801, and his obituary described him as a native of Sweden (South Carolina State Gazette and Timothy’s Daily Advertiser, January 5, 1802).

3. For more on the establishment of these townships, see Edgar, “South Carolina,” pp. 92–111. Londonborough, whose populace was overwhelmingly German, was not founded until the 1760s. Information on the origin of the German settlers arriving during the 1760s is derived from MESDA research, which documents cabinetmakers from Hanover, Oldenburg, and Hesse-Cassel.

4. For Fisher, see South Carolina Gazette, May 16, 1771. For Thomas Hutchinson, see ibid., pp. 90, 97–98; Will of Thomas Hutchinson, July 16, 1782, Charleston County Wills (hereinafter cited as CCW), no. 2, 1783–1786, p. 318; and D. E. Huger Smith and Alexander S. Salley, Jr., Register of St. Philip’s Parish, Charles Town, 1754–1810 (1927; reprint ed., Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1971), p. 353. For Thomas Elfe, Sr., see South Carolina Gazette and American General Gazette, December 8, 1775. For Thomas Elfe, Jr., see CCW, no. 18, 1776–1784, p. 88; and Gazette of the State of Georgia, June 26, 1783. For Pearce, see Records of the Public Treasurers of South Carolina, 1725–1776, journal B, p. 352, nos. 79, 80; and Mabel L. Webber, comp., “The Thomas Elfe Account Book, 1768–1775,” South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine 38, no. 1 (January 1937): 39, 58, 61, 133. For Magrath, see South Carolina Gazette, August 8, 1771; and Gazette of the State of South Carolina, July 21, 1777. For Packrow, see South Carolina and American General Gazette, March 20, 1777; and Gazette of the State of South Carolina, August 7, 1778. For Townsend, see South Carolina and American General Gazette, June 3, 1771. For Axson, see City Gazette of the Daily Advertiser, May 28, 1788. For Finlayson, see Chancery Court Bill of Complaint, pt. 2, nos. 34–61, 1800 regarding a charge made by Finlayson against the estate of Andrew Hibben in 1784. For Gough, see deed from Gough to Eleanor Rust, March 16–17, 1777, CCLRM, pt. 3, bk. B5, 1776–1779, pp. 77–80. For Ralph, see South Carolina and American General Gazette, February 24, 1781. For Luyten, see Charleston Morning Post and Daily Advertiser, January 3, 1787. For Howe, see suit of William Donaldson vs. John Howe, March 29, 1779, SCCCPJR, box 105A, no. 104A. For Snead, see deed from Snead to Jacob Valk, September 16, 1779, CCLRM, pt. 66, bk. E5, 1781–1782, pp. 96–98. For Stewart, see appointment of Isabella Stewart as administrator of Stewart’s estate, March 11, 1785, Charleston County Letters of Administration (hereinafter cited as CCLA), vol. 00, 1777–1785, p. 445. For Simmons, see mortgage of Simmons to John Croll, April 2, 1784, Charleston County Miscellaneous Records, 1784–1789, p. 69. For Philips, see letters of administration for the estate of Timothy Philips, July 16, 1784, CCLA, vol. K, 1778–1821, p. 92. For more on the aforementioned artisans, see their respective entries in E. Milby Burton, Charleston Furniture, 1700–1825 (Charleston, S.C.: Charleston Museum, 1955), passim; and MESDA artisan files.

5. “Ralph and Dysell” were listed as plaintiffs in a Court of Common Pleas case against a British merchant (reported in the South Carolina Weekly Gazette, August 23, 1784). On March 31, 1784, Ann Cross paid “Desel & Gaskin” £10.17.6 for “Makeing a Mahogny Coffin full Trimd” for her husband (Paul Cross Papers, 1768–1803, box 1, folder 8, 1783–1785). In the April 22, 1789, City Gazette of the Daily Advertiser, merchant Thomas Corbett offered for sale “the lot and building, No. 44, in Church street . . . in the occupation of Messrs. Desel & Gasken, cabinetmakers.” Desel was listed at both 44 Church Street and 15 Maiden Lane (probably his residence) in Milligan’s city directory of 1790. By 1794, Desel had acquired cabinetmaker William Jones’s shop and residence at 51 Broad Street (Jones, who died in 1792, was located at the corner of Broad and Tradd), where, according to city directories, he evidently remained until his death in 1807. In 1794, Gesken was listed by himself in Milligan’s directory at 205 King Street. Inventory of Charles Desel, CCI, vol. D, 1800–1810, pp. 450–51.

6. Will of Benjamin Wheeler, April 30, 1784, CCW, no. 20, 1783–1786, p. 387. Warner & Silberg vs. James Brown, October 25, 1788, SCCCPJR, box 135B, no. 25A. Charleston Morning Post and Daily Advertiser, February 7, 1787. City Gazette & Daily Advertiser, October 1, 1793. South Carolina Gazette and Timothy’s Daily Advertiser, January 5, 1802.

7. South Carolina Gazette and General Advertiser, December 18, 1783.

8. The Alston library bookcase is illustrated and discussed in Gerald W. R. Ward, American Case Furniture in the Mabel Brady Garvan and Other Collections at Yale University (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Art Gallery, 1988), pp. 363–66, figs. 188, 188a. The Baltimore-like, scrolled pediment of the Alston library bookcase is a later addition, and evidence suggests that the piece originally had bracket feet below its base. These feet probably resembled those on the Edwards library bookcase. The secretary on legs is illustrated in Burton, Charleston Furniture, fig. 67, and William Voss Elder, III, and Jayne E. Stokes, American Furniture 1680–1880 (Baltimore, Md.: Baltimore Museum of Art, 1987), p. 110.

9. Although the Alston and Holmes pieces are roughly contemporary with furniture associated with Jacob Sass (see fig. 16), a desk-and-bookcase signed by him and dated 1794 (at the Winterthur Museum) has different stylistic details. The differences between these pieces suggest that the Alston library bookcase and Holmes secretary are from another German-school shop of the early to mid-1780s, possibly one of the partnerships such as Desel & Gesken or Warner & Silberg.

10. The clothespress shown in figure 4 is illustrated in Burton, Charleston Furniture, figs. 15, 44. MESDA would like to locate this object so that it can be rephotographed for inclusion in the museum’s forthcoming book on Charleston furniture.

11. A vast amount of furniture has been attributed to the shop of John and Thomas Seymour; however, other Boston cabinetmakers probably made a large percentage of the work assigned to their shop. John Seymour was in Portland, Maine, in 1785 and moved to Boston in 1794, where he was in partnership with his son, Thomas. An inlaid and mahogany-veneered coffer attributed to the Seymours has stringing in the center of its lid similar to that in the center of the friezes of the pieces illustrated in figures 4–6. The coffer is illustrated in Vernon C. Stoneman, John and Thomas Seymour: Cabinetmakers in Boston 1794–1816 (Boston: Special Publications, 1959), p. 258, fig. 251. It is possible that this object was made in Charleston rather than in Boston
.
12. The right foot of a “Commode Clothes Press” illustrated in plate 130 of the third edition of Thomas Chippendale’s The Gentleman and Cabinet-Maker’s Director (1762) follows this pattern. Presses made by Chippendale for Nostell Priory in 1771 and Harewood House in 1769–1770 have the identical foot (Christopher Gilbert, The Life and Work of Thomas Chippendale, 2 vols. [New York: Tabard Press, 1978], 2: 134, figs. 239, 241; 117, fig. 205; 60, fig. 94).

13. South Carolina Gazette, July 9, 1771.

14. Many of the German-school details, including profuse decoration with engraved ivory inlay, appear to center upon the duchy of Brunswick, which became a part of the Electorate of Hanover. See, for example, the ca. 1720 press-over-drawers, or Aufsatz-Schrank, from Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel in Franz Swoboda, Deutsche Möbel-Kunst Restauriert 1976–1980 (Mannheim: Städtischen Reiss–Museum Mannheim, 1981), pp. 10–11, fig. 3b. In the same style and collection is a desk-and-bookcase attributed to Brunswick. It has an English provenance and added English hairy-paw feet (Dr. Franz Swoboda, Director of Art and City Collections, Reiss-Museum, Mannheim, to the author, October 30, 1996). The desk-and-bookcase is illustrated in Heinrich Kreisel, Die Kunst des deutschen Möbels: Spätbarock und Rokoko (Munich: Verlag C. H. Beck, 1983), fig. 883.

15. For Muckinfuss, see Charleston Courier, August 5, 1808; and Muckinfuss’s inventory, September 6, 1808, CCI, vol. D, 1800–1810, pp. 476–77. For Gros, see McIntosh and Gros vs. John Mushatt, June 10, 1815, SCCCPJR, 1815, no. 333A. For Sass, see City Gazette and Commercial Daily Advertiser, July 3, 1815. For Philips, see ibid., August 11, 1800. For Sigwald, see letters of administration for the estate of Christian Sigwald, March 22, 1799, CCLA, vol. RR, 1797–1803, p. 147. For Rou, see John Christian Faber to George Daniel “Rowe,” January 7, 1800, CCLRM, pt, 90, bk. A7, 1800, pp. 74–75. Demographics of the Charleston cabinetmaking community are derived from Rauschenberg, Charleston Cabinetmakers, 1680–1820.

16. Charleston Morning Post and Daily Advertiser, January 22, 1787. City Gazette or the Daily Advertiser, August 13, 1788. Ibid., May 19, 1789. Purchase of lot by Desel, CCLRM, pt. 80, bk. F6, 1791–1793, pp. 139–43. Mary Desel to Samuel Desel, February 5, 1810, CCLRM, pt. 100, bk. A8, 1809–1811, p. 170.

17. City Gazette or the Daily Advertiser, July 8, 1791. Ibid., November 9, 1790. State Gazette of South-Carolina, March 14 and April 8, 1791. Ibid., December 5, 1791. Jones became member 676 of the South Carolina Society on April 10, 1792 (J. H. Easterly, Rules of the South Carolina Society, etc., 17th ed. [Charleston: South Carolina Society, 1937], p. 125). State Gazette of South-Carolina, November 10, 1792. Charleston County Letters Testamentary, 1792–1799, p. 33. Inventory of William Jones, February [16], 1793, CCI, vol. B, 1787–1793, p. 495.

18. Inventory of William Jones.

19. Charleston Morning Post, June 28, 1786. South Carolina Gazette, January 29, 1795. Charleston Morning Post, December 22, 1786. South Carolina Gazette, September 5, 1796. The advertisements are cited in Alfred Coxe Prime, comp., The Arts & Crafts in Philadelphia Maryland and South Carolina, 1786–1800, 2 vols. (Philadelphia, Pa.: Walpole Society, 1932), 2:64–65.

20. Brock Jobe, ed., Portsmouth Furniture: Masterworks of the New Hampshire Seacoast (Boston: Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, 1993), pp. 106–7. In comparing a ca. 1802 canted-corner chest of drawers by Langley Boardman (who trained in Salem, Massachusetts) with the Charleston example illustrated in figure 33 of this article, Jobe suggests that “closely related Charleston examples . . . may well be based on chests shipped by Boardman to that southern port” (entry by Brock Jobe in Alexandra W. Rollins, ed., Treasures of State: Fine and Decorative Arts in the Diplomatic Reception Rooms of the U.S. Departmant of State [New York: Harry Abrams, 1991], p. 179). Although structurally altered, a Boston-area chest with profusely carved cants and base in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, could date from the 1770s. The chest of drawers in Charleston Furniture has book-matched, veneered drawer faces with no inlay. The only stringing on the piece outlines the veneer on its canted corners. The top drawer frame is mahogany, whereas the other drawer frames are cypress; the drawer front cores are solid white pine. The drawers have no center muntins, and the bottoms are fitted to conventional dadoes at the fronts and sides. The writing slide in the top drawer is 1/2" thick and constructed with unmitred battens at each side. The case has full-bottom, three-quarter-depth, white pine dustboards. Evidently, the feet were replaced long ago. The facings are much thinner than expected for a Charleston piece of this type, and the foot cants show no evidence of veneering.

21. Charles Montgomery, American Furniture: The Federal Period, 1788–1825 (New York: Viking Press, 1966), p. 185, fig. 142.

22. In Burton, Charleston Furniture, fig. 68, this exceptionally tall table is shown with a cabinet added at a slightly later date. A product of Charleston’s German school, this table has carved brackets by the same artisan who executed all of the carving on both the pre-Revolutionary and neoclassical German-school furniture. This carver was probably Henry Hainsdorff, who in 1776 advertised that he had served as a journeyman for three years with London-trained carver John Lord (South Carolina and American General Gazette, October 2, 1776). Hainsdorff died in 1796 (Smith and Salley, Register of St. Philip’s Parish, p. 355).

23. No research on the manufacture of white-background inlay in Britain is known (telephone conversation with Christopher Gilbert, Director Emeritus, Temple Newsam House, Leeds, September 1996). I would be grateful for any documented evidence of this work, since there is no documentation of post-Revolutionary inlay makers in Charleston. The “brittle-star-like” paterae on the front foot facings of the serpentine press occur on the frieze of a Norfolk corner cupboard in MESDA. These inlays may have been obtained from either Charleston or Britain, but whatever the source, they are rare in Norfolk.

24. The author thanks Thomas G. Sudbrink of the U.S. Department of State for his helpful examination of this object. Center-muntin drawer bottoms are comparatively rare on American furniture made outside Charleston. They occur occasionally in New York furniture made before and after the Revolution, and with some regularity in Norfolk, Virginia, during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. New York cabinetmakers frequently used half-bottom or paneled dustboards. Both dustboard systems are common in British furniture but comparatively rare in Charleston.

25. Thomas Sheraton, The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer’s Drawing-Book (1793; reprint ed., New York: Dover Publications, 1972), p. 28 (original p. 10).

26. For the Strobel history, see MESDA research file S-8745.

27. The Duc de La Rochefoucault-Liancourt, as quoted in Margaret Burke Clunie, “Salem Federal Furniture” (master’s thesis, University of Delaware, June 1976), p. 5. Clunie’s thesis is the most detailed study of the post-Revolutionary cabinetmaking trade in Salem. It focuses on the trade structure of Salem rather than stylistic considerations.

28. Clunie, “Salem Federal Furniture,” p. 14. Henry Wyckoff Belknap, “Furniture Exported by Cabinet Makers of Salem,” Essex Institute Historical Collections 85 (October 1949): 336–37. Clunie, “Salem Federal Furniture,” pp. 303, 45.

29. Mabel M. Swan, “Elijah and Jacob Sanderson, Early Salem Cabinetmakers,” Essex Institute Historical Collections 70 (October 1934): 4–6.

30. Walter J. Fraser, Jr., Charleston! Charleston! (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989), pp. 173–75, 178, 192.

31. Swan, “Elijah and Jacob Sanderson,” pp. 4–6.

32. Sanderson Papers, box 1, folder 3, J. D. Phillips Library, Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Massachusetts.

33. Swan, “Elijah and Jacob Sanderson,” pp. 6, 7. Sanderson Papers.

34. MESDA research file S-14,613. Entry by Brock Jobe in Rollins, ed., Treasures of State,
p. 210.

35. This table is illustrated in John Bivins, Wilmington Furniture 1720–1860 (Wilmington, N.C.: St. John’s Museum of Art and the Historic Wilmington Foundation, 1989), p. 69. Several examples of Wilmington furniture in the Salem style are illustrated in this book. Records of the Collector of Customs for the Collection District of Salem & Beverly, Massachusetts, microfilm roll 28, National Archives, New England Region, Waltham, Massachusetts. Swan, “Elijah and Jacob Sanderson,” pp. 8, 9. Belknap, “Furniture Exported by Cabinet Makers of Salem,” p. 354. The card table signed by Elijah Sanderson is illustrated in Bivins, Wilmington Furniture, p. 69.

36. Invoice for furniture aboard the Greyhound, February 17, 1808, Sanderson Papers, box 2. Invoice by Robert Cottle to the Sandersons and Appleton, August 1799, Sanderson Papers, box 1. Invoice for furniture shipped to Charleston, December 5, 1817, Sanderson Papers, box 2.

37. Charleston Courier, September 4, 1804. City Gazette and Daily Advertiser, January 6, 1801.

38. For Warham, see South Carolina Gazette, November 9, 1734. For Badger, see Badger’s purchase of a lot on Tradd St., CCLRM, pt. 22, bks. BB-DD, 1745–1748, pp. 77–85. Clunie, “Salem Federal Furniture,” pp. 14, 87, 121. (Clunie notes that Dorchester Mills was particularly strong in the cabinet trade. Stephen Badlam, who executed commissions from Elias Haskett Derby, was there, along with William and Ebenezer Vose, Adam and Ebenezer Davenport, John and Benjamin Crehore, William Wadsworth, Lewis Leach, and Lewis Tucker.) Myrna Kaye, “Eighteenth-Century Boston Furniture Craftsmen,” in Boston Furniture of the Eighteenth Century, edited by Walter Muir Whitehill, Brock Jobe, and Jonathan Fairbanks (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1974), pp. 267–302. Swaney was admitted to Masonic Lodge No. 14 on February 9, 1803, as recorded in Historical Sketch of Orange Lodge, No. 14, A.F.M., Charleston, S.C. (Charleston, S.C.: Lodge 14, 1911), p. 38. Charleston Times, February 18, 1808.

39. The Sanderson secretary and the unsigned example are illustrated in Rollins, ed., Treasures of State, p. 211, no. 121; p. 205, no. 116.

40. The rosettes on the pediment of the Appleton secretary have bicolor, fanlike inlays. Although atypical of Charleston, similar rosettes occur on Massachusetts-style furniture made in Wilmington, North Carolina, 160 miles north (John Bivins, The Furniture of Coastal North Carolina, 1700–1820 [Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press for MESDA, 1988], p. 415, fig. 7.36c).

41. A Salem gentleman’s secretary with this type of cornice is illustrated in fig. 67 of Richard H. Randall, Jr., American Furniture in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1965). Charleston Times, May 24, 1804. Ibid., August 24, 1807. The secretary-press is recorded in MESDA research file S-14,656.

42. John Marshall vs. William Marshall, August 21, 1798, Charleston District Court of Common Pleas, Judgment Rolls, no. 657A. Charleston Orphan House, Indenture Book for Boys and Girls, p. 32, Charleston City Archives. Tennant continued in the trade until the 1830s. Inevitably, there are exceptions to almost every rule. In the Garvan Collection is a phenomenal double chest made by Stephen Badlam (1751–1815) of Dorchester Lower Mills and carved by John and Simeon Skillin of Boston in 1791 as a wedding present for Anstis Derby, the daughter of Elias and Elizabeth Derby. Both the upper and lower cases of this piece have full dustboards. See Ward, American Case Furniture, p. 172.

43. Pages 22 and 72 of The New-York Revised Prices for Manufacturing Cabinet and Chair Work (1818) indicate that the cost of the tracery for a pair of thirteen-light Chinese doors of this type was £1.10 compared to six shillings for flat panels. This publication supplanted the 1810 list of cabinetmakers’ prices published by the city’s “Society of Cabinet-Makers.”

44. A clothespress and two other canted-corner chests of drawers are closely related to the chest (fig. 33) and have the same in-turned feet. The press is illustrated in Antiques 135, no. 5 (May 1989): 1133; one of the chest of drawers is illustrated in Antiques 91, no. 1 (January 1967): 19. This chest of drawers has wider cant faces than the one shown in figure 33 (which could indicate a different shop), fluted foot cants, and a top with edge-banding and a large central paterae of figured mahogany. A third chest of drawers (MESDA research file S-8740) virtually identical to the chest illustrated in figure 33 descended in the Porcher family of Ophir Plantation, St. John’s Parish, Berkeley County, South Carolina. It has no inlay on its foot cants.

45. Jobe, ed., Portsmouth Furniture, pp. 106–7. Another canted-corner chest of drawers that can be attributed to Boardman was sold in New York in 1994 (Sotheby’s, Important Americana, sale 6589, June 23–24, 1995, lot 520).

46. In colonial Charleston furniture, it is common to find tooth-planing inside drawer fronts and under table tops, even when no glue blocking is present. Cabinetmakers evidently preferred this tool (which has a nearly vertical iron and produces an essentially scraping cut) for cross-grain dressing of surfaces, particularly when hard, dense Santo Domingo mahogany was used.

47. The New-York Revised Prices for Manufacturing Cabinet and Chair Work lists an added cost of three shillings for “framing a back” of a bureau “with two panels extra from plain.”

48. Exceptions can be found on finer Salem pieces, such as the Appleton secretary (fig. 28). Although its interior surfaces have prominent saw kerfs, the dovetailing of the drawers is very fine. Such variations suggest the need for caution in making blanket comparisons of structure and surface quality. Structural anomalies also occur in Charleston furniture, as exemplified by the absence of dustboards in the chest shown in figure 33 and the board backs (which were less expensive than paneled ones) of two other pieces from the same shop.

49. Montgomery, American Furniture: The Federal Period, p. 225, nos. 182; p. 224, no. 181; p. 222, no. 179.

50. This secretary, in the collection of the Historic Columbia Foundation, is located at the Robert Mills Historic House and Park. MESDA research file S-2422.

51 These inlays appear to be copies of Philadelphia work. A 1793–1797 card table by Adam Haines has leg stile inlay that is virtually identical. This table descended in the Maybank family of Charleston, and it has a label that reads: “all kinds of cabinet and chair-work done by adam haines, no. 135, north third-street, philadelphia.” For the table, see MESDA research file S-23, 482.

52. St. John’s Lutheran Church Records, 1755–1787, p. 42. Rules of the German Friendly Society, p. 122, no. 207. City Gazette and Daily Advertiser, May 23, 1796. Ibid., May 6 and 7, 1799.

53. City Gazette and Daily Advertiser, August 5, 1800. Ibid., September 5, 1800. Ibid., August 11, 1800. Burton, Charleston Furniture, p. 112, notes that Philips was listed as a cabinetmaker in city directories for 1809 and 1813 but does not specify what these publications were. Eleazer Elizer’s Charleston directory for 1803. Negrin’s Social Magazine and Quarterly Intelligencer, January 1804. Negrin’s Charleston directory for 1806 and 1807. Schenck & Turner’s Charleston directory for 1819.

54. Charleston Courier, October 20, 1818; Ibid., March 25, 1818.

55. Having long since lost a citation for this timeless description, the author would be most grateful if any reader could identify the source.

56. South Carolina Gazette, July 9, 1771.