1. The Christian M. Nestell Drawing Book is in the Joseph Downs Collection of Manuscripts and Printed Ephemera (hereinafter cited as DCM), Winterthur Museum Library, Winterthur, Del.

2. Nestell Lodge, No. 37, A.F. and A.M., Providence, Rhode Island, Fiftieth Anniversary Celebration, 1880–1930 (Providence: By the lodge, 1930), n.p.; Rhode Island Death Records, 1877–1880, microfilm roll 48, pp. 1264–65, Rhode Island Historical Society (hereinafter cited as RIHS), Providence, R.I. For information on Michael Nestell, see “Notes and Queries,” New York Genealogical and Biographical Record 8, no. 1 (January 1877): 44.

3. Nestell Lodge Fiftieth Anniversary Celebration, n.p.; Sotheby’s, Americana, March 13, 1982,
lot 43.

4. Nestell Lodge Fiftieth Anniversary Celebration, n.p.; “Register of Enlistments in the U.S. Army, 1798–1815,” National Archives, Washington, D.C. (microfilm, DCM).

5. For New York population figures, see Henry Tudor, Narrative of a Tour in North America, 2 vols. (London: James Duncan, 1834), 1:22. Timothy Dwight, Travels in New England and New York, 4 vols., edited by Barbara Miller Solomon (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1969), 3:326–27, 330.

6. Elliot and Crissy’s New-York Directory, for the Year 1811 (New York: Elliot and Crissy, 1811); Longworth’s American Almanac, New-York Register, and City Directory (New York: David Longworth, 1811); Elliot’s Improved New-York Double Directory (New York: William Elliot, 1812); Longworth’s American Almanac, New-York Register, and City Directory (New York: David Longworth, 1812); George L. McKay, comp., A Register of Artists, Engravers, Booksellers, Bookbinders, Printers, and Publishers in New York City, 1633–1820 (New York: New York Public Library, 1942); Mr. Cottu in New-York Evening Post (New York), January 2, 1811.

7. Archibald Robertson in New-York Evening Post, April 26, 1802, as quoted in Rita Susswein Gottesman, comp., The Arts and Crafts in New York, 1800–1804 (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1965), pp. 10–11, and New-York Evening Post, November 4, 1811.

8. “Register of Enlistments”; Christian I. Nestell Creditor Agreement, January 8, 1821, with Nestell Drawing Book, DCM.

9. William, Daniel, and Samuel Proud Ledger, 1770–1825, and Daniel and Samuel Proud Daybook and Ledger, 1810–1834, RIHS; Henry R. Chace, Owners and Occupants of the Lots, Houses, and Shops in the Town of Providence, Rhode Island, in 1798 (Providence: By the author, 1914), p. 20; William Mitchell Pillsbury, “The Providence Furniture Making Trade, 1772–1834” (M.A. thesis, University of Delaware, 1975), p. 92.

10. John Hayward, The New England Gazetteer (Boston: By the author, 1839), s.v. “Providence, R.I.”; “The Diary of Samuel Breck, 1823–1827,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 103, no. 1 (January 1979): 105; [Anne Newport Royall], Sketches of History, Life, and Manners in the United States (New Haven, Conn.: By the author, 1826), pp. 368–69.

11. Christian M. Nestell Bill to R. W. Greene, April 3, 1827, A. C. and R. W. Greene Collection, RIHS; Joseph K. Ott, “Still More Notes on Rhode Island Cabinetmakers and Allied Craftsmen,” Rhode Island History 28, no. 4 (November 1969): 118; Jane L. Cayford, “The Sullivan Dorr House in Providence, Rhode Island” (M.A. thesis, University of Delaware, 1961), p.141.

12. Samuel J. Bower in The Providence Directory (Providence, R.I.: H. H. Brown, 1830), p. 3.

13. Samuel J. Bower in Providence Gazette (Providence, R.I.), June 4, 1820; Samuel E. Brown in Providence Patriot (Providence, R.I.), May 30, 1821.

14. Kinsley C. Gladding in Providence Patriot and Columbian Phenix (Providence, R.I.), May 16, 1827; William W. Pitman in Providence Patriot, November 4, 1820, and January 31, 1824, and Rhode-Island American and General Advertiser (Providence), March 30, 1821; Samuel J. Bower in The Providence Directory (Providence, R.I.: H. H. Brown, 1828), p. 2, and Providence Patriot, January 4 and August 9, 1823; Richard M. Candee, “Housepaints in Colonial America: Their Materials, Manufacture, and Application,” Color Engineering 5, no. 2 (March/April 1967): 37.

15. William W. Pitman in Rhode-Island American and General Advertiser, March 30, 1821; Henry Wilder Miller Account Book, 1827–1831, Worcester Historical Museum, Worcester, Mass.; John S. Barrow in Manufacturers’ and Farmers’ Journal, Providence and Pawtucket Advertiser (Providence, R.I.), February 28, 1820; Betty Ring, Girlhood Embroidery: American Samplers and Pictorial Needlework, 1650–1850, 2 vols. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993), 1:75; George Davidson Waste Book, 1793–1799, Old Sturbridge Village, Sturbridge, Mass.; Samuel J. Bower in Providence Patriot, August 9, 1823.

16. Samuel J. Bower in Providence Directory (1830); Kinsley C. Gladding in Providence Patriot and Columbian Phenix, May 16, 1827; William M. Pitman in Providence Patriot, January 31, 1824, and Rhode-Island American and Providence Gazette (Providence), December 30, 1825.

17. Whipple and Low in Providence Patriot, July 15, 1820; William W. Pitman in Rhode-Island American and Providence Gazette, May 12, 1826; Kinsley C. Gladding in Rhode-Island American and General Advertiser, August 14, 1822, and Providence Patriot and Columbian Phenix, May 16, 1827; Sanford Mason in Rhode-Island American and General Advertiser, January 15, 1822.

18. John R. Penniman in Rhode-Island American and General Advertiser, June 8, 1822; Rufus Porter in Providence Patriot, November 20, 1822.

19. Henry W. Rugg, History of Freemasonry in Rhode Island (Providence: E. L. Freemen and Son, 1895), p. 371, reference courtesy of Robert P. Emlen; Rhode Island Death Records.

20. Christian M. Nestell Deed to William Haslett, October 20, 1835, Record of Deeds Book 70-A, p. 15, City Hall Archives, Providence, R.I.; Christian M. Nestell Deed for Shares in Providence New Market Association, April 18, 1831, Registry of Deeds, Providence, R.I.

21. Nestell Lodge Fiftieth Anniversary Celebration, n.p.; A List of Persons Assessed in the Town Tax of Forty Thousand Dollars Voted by the Freemen of Providence, June 1827 (Providence, R.I.: Hutchens and Cory, 1827), and continuing through 1832 with various publishers; A List of Persons Assessed in the City Tax of Forty Thousand Dollars Ordered by the City Council, June 1833 (Providence, R.I.: J. S. Ham and S. R. Weeden, 1833), and continuing through 1852 with various publishers and title changes to reflect new tax bases, City Hall Archives, Providence; List of Freemen with the City Officers of Providence (Providence, R.I.: H. H. Brown, 1832), p. 23; Rhode Island Death Records; Christian M. Nestell Will, written April 19, 1876, presented in court March 9, 1880, Registry of Probate, Providence, R.I.

22. Rugg, History of Freemasonry, pp. 371–73; Nestell Lodge Fiftieth Anniversary Celebration, n.p.

23. Thomas L. Gravell and George Miller, A Catalogue of Foreign Watermarks Found on Paper Used in America, 1700–1835 (New York: Garland Publishing, 1983), p. 221, item 12.

24. Thomas Sheraton, The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer’s Drawing-Book (1793; reprint, New York: Dover Publications, 1972).

25. Jane C. Nylander, “Some Print Sources of New England Schoolgirl Art,” and Betty Ring, “Mrs. Saunders’ and Miss Beach’s Academy, Dorchester,” Antiques 110, no. 2 (August 1976): 296, 301, 307.

26. Alexander Robertson in New-York Evening Post, April 19 and 26, 1802, and Archibald Robertson in Morning Chronicle (New York), December 11, 1804, as quoted in Gottesman, comp., Arts and Crafts in New York, 1800–1804, pp. 9–13.

27. For European sources with thatched buildings and/or waterwheels, see Johns Burtons, Landschafts Maler nach der Natur (Leipzig: Baumgaertner, 178?), n.p.; David Cox, The Young Artist’s Companion (London: S. and J. Fuller, 1825), pls. 17, 37; Florence M. Montgomery, Printed Textiles: English and American Cottons and Linens, 1700–1850 (New York: Viking Press, 1970), figs. 254–55; William Orme, The Rudiments of Landscape Drawing and Perspective (London, 1801), n.p.; George C. Williamson, George Morland, His Life and Works (London: George Bell and Sons, 1907), pls. facing pp. 10, 20, 26, 86, 118. For American needlework with thatched building, see Ring, Girlhood Embroidery, 2:384. Nathaniel Whittock, The Decorative Painters’ and Glaziers’ Guide (London: Isaac Taylor Hinton, 1827), pp. 321–22.

28. William Enfield, Elementary View of the Fine Arts (London: Thomas Tegg, 1809), p. 76; Ring, Girlhood Embroidery, 1:206, 2:380–82.

29. For delineations of small boats, see W. H. Pyne, Picturesque Views of Rural Occupations in Early Nineteenth-Century England (1808; reprint 1824 ed., New York: Dover Publications, 1977), pl. 63; The Artist’s Vade Mecum, Being the Whole Art of Drawing (London: R. Sayer, 1762), pls. 87, 98. For European scenes with ruins, see Joshua Bryant, Progressive Lessons in Landscape (London: R. Ackermann, 1807), pls. 13, 16; Cox, Young Artist’s Companion, pl. 50; Orme, Rudiments of Landscape, n.p.

30. Hannah Robertson, The Young Ladies’ School of Arts (York, England: By the author, [1777]), pp. 22–23; All Draughtsmen’s Assistant, or Drawing Made Easy (London: R. Sayer and J. Bennett, 177? [Engraved plates in the book are dated between 1770 and 1777; the title page is inscribed in ink “January 16, 1781.”]), p. 14 and pl. 5, figs. 4, 5.

31. For examples of rough dress, see Pyne, Picturesque Views, pl. 100; John Thomas Smith, The Cries of London (London: John Bowyer Nichols and Son, 1839), pl. 16. For a figure with a walking stick, see Enfield, Elementary View, facing p. 281. A Catalogue of the Subjects Contained in the Hubard Gallery (New York: D. Fanshaw, 1824), nos. 21, 25.

32. Francis Grose, The Antiquities of Ireland, 2 vols. (London: S. Hooper, 1791[–1795]), 1: pl. 101; Bryant, Progressive Lessons in Landscape, pl. 28.

33. The Art of Drawing and Painting in Water-Colours (Dublin: J. Potts, 1778), p. 10.

34. Edward Topsel, The History of Four-Footed Beasts and Serpents (London: G. Sawbridge et al., 1658), pp. 86, 207; The Manual of Heraldry, edited by Francis J. Grant (Edinburgh: John Grant, 1962), p. 68; Whittock, Painters’ Guide, p. 320.

35. Francis Barlow, A Booke Containing Such Beasts As Are Most Usefull for Such as Practice Drawing, Graveing, Armes Painting, Chaseing, and for Severall Other Occasions (London: Henry Overton, [before 1704]), pl. 8; Topsel, History of Four-Footed Beasts, p. 508. For representations of squirrels in American portraits, see Albert Ten Eyck Gardner and Stuart P. Feld, American Painting: A Catalogue of the Collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Painters Born by 1815 (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1965), pp. 44–45; Jules David Prown, John Singleton Copley (Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, 1965), pp. 40–41; American Naive Paintings from the National Gallery of Art (Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, 1985), p. 52; Beatrix T. Rumford, ed., American Folk Portraits: Paintings and Drawings from the Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Center (Boston: New York Graphic Society for the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1981), p. 42.

36. Topsel, History of Four-Footed Beasts, p. 173; Roger L’Estrange, Fables of Aesop and Other Eminent Mythologists with Morals and Reflections (3d ed.; London: R. Sare et al., 1669), fable 424.

37. Sonia Roberts, Bird-Keeping and Birdcages: A History (Newton Abbot, England: David and Charles, 1972), pp. 28–31, 38.

38. Alan Feduccia, Catesby’s Birds of Colonial America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), pp. 64–67; Rita Susswein Gottesman, comp., The Arts and Crafts in New York, 1726–1776 (1938; reprint, New York: Da Capo Press, 1970), pp. 194, 254; Jane Carson, Colonial Virginians at Play, Williamsburg Research Series (Williamsburg, Va.: Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1965), p. 101; Elisabeth Donaghy Garrett, At Home: The American Family, 1750–1870 (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1990), pp. 73, 92.

39. Roberts, Bird-Keeping, p. 33; Francis Barlow, Aesops Fables with His Life (London: By the author, 1687), pp. 95, 155; R. Dodsley, Select Fables of Esop and Other Fabulists (Philadelphia: Mathew Carey, 1811), fable 29; Juvenile Sketches of Natural History of Birds (New York: Samuel Wood and Son, 1817); A History of British Birds, 2 vols. (Newcastle, England: T. Bewick, 1805), 1:301–4; Joseph Kastner, The Bird Illustrated, 1550–1900 (New York: New York Public Library, 1988), p. 99; Montgomery, Printed Textiles, figs. 217–19, 221; Thomas Hope, Household Furniture and Interior Decoration (1807; reprint, New York: Dover Publications, 1971), pl. 6.

40. George Wither, A Collection of Emblems, Ancient and Moderne (London: John Grismond, 1635), p. 250; Barbara Franco, Masonic Symbols in American Decorative Arts (Lexington, Mass.: Museum of Our National Haritage, 1976), p. 48; A Specimen of Metal Ornaments Cast at the Letter Foundry of Binny and Ronaldson (Philadelphia: Fry and Kammerer, 1809), no. 67, as printed in facsimile in The Specimen Books of Binny and Ronaldson, 1809–1812 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1936); Specimen of Printing Types from the Boston Type and Stereotype Foundry (Boston: Samuel M. Dickinson, 1832), p. 102, no. 113, as printed in facsimile in Stephen O. Saxe, ed., Old-Time Advertising Cuts and Typography, (New York: Dover Publications, 1989); Ring, Girlhood Embroidery, 2:437; A Complete Guide for the Management of Bees through the Year (Worcester, Mass.: Isaiah Thomas, 1792), facing title page; Thomas Mouffet, The Theater of Insects (London, 1658), front cover.

41. Artist’s Vade Mecum, p. 71; The Young Artist’s Assistant, A New Drawing Book (London, 1826), fig. 28.

42. John Cart Burgess, A Practical Essay on the Art of Flower Painting (London: D. Jacques, 1811), p. 16; Kilburn and Dodd, A New Book of Sprigs of Flowers (London: R. Sayer and J. Bennett, 1776), n.p.; The Botanical Magazine, or Flower-Garden Displayed, 2 vols. (London: W. Curtis, 1787), Vol. 1: pl. 69; John Edwards, A Collection of Flowers Drawn after Nature ([probably London], 1786), s.v. “Moss Province Rose Buds” and “Cabbage Province Rose”; Rumford, ed., American Folk Portraits, pp. 38–39, 73–74, 211, 213, 215–16.

43. Robertson, Young Ladies’ School of Arts, p. 28.

44. Burgess, Practical Essay, pp. 12–13; Thomas Chippendale, The Gentleman and Cabinet-Maker’s Director (1762; reprint of 3d ed., New York: Dover Publications, 1966), pl. 176; George Smith, A Collection of Designs for Household Furniture and Interior Decoration (1808; reprint, New York: Praeger Publishers, 1970), pl. 96; Arthur T. Bolton, The Architecture of Robert and James Adam, 2 vols. (London: Country Life, 1922), 1:265, 2:61.

45. Burgess, Practical Essay, pp. 22–23; Carington Bowles, Bowles’s Florist: Containing Sixty Plates of Beautiful Flowers (London: Carington Bowles, 1777), p. 18, pl. 49.

46. Burgess, Practical Essay, pp. 13, 19, 20, 27; James Andrews, The Art of Flower Painting (London: Tilt and Bogue, 184?), pls. 6, 20. For flowers in containers, see Specimens of Printing Types and Ornaments Cast by Alexander Robb (Philadelphia, 1846), metal ornaments, nos. 66–68, 182; Artist’s Vade Mecum, pl. 81; A Drawing Book of Flowers (London: R. Marshall, [ca. 1770–1800]), n.p. (flowers in vase and tall basket); A. Heckle, The Florist, or an Extensive and Curious Collection of Flowers (London: John Bowles and Son, [1759]), pls. 23, 24.

47. Burgess, Practical Essay, p. 19; Robertson, Young Ladies’ School of Arts, p. 59.

48. Botanical Magazine (1787), vol. 1, pl. 27; Curtis’s Botanical Magazine, or Flower-Garden Displayed (London: T. Curtis, 1803), vol. 8, pl. 732; The Young Ladies’ Drawing Book, or Complete Instructor in Drawing and Colouring Flowers, Fruits, and Shells (London: E. Wallis, [1832]), pl. 11; The Art of Painting in Water Colours (London: Robert Laurie and James Whittle, 1797), p. 29.

49. Mathias Lock, The Principles of Ornament, or the Youth’s Guide to Drawing Foliage (London: Robert Sayer, 174?), pp. 2–5; Sheraton, Drawing-Book, “Accompaniment,” pl. 1.

50. Bowles, Bowles’s Florist, p. 14, pl. 33; Botanical Magazine (1787), vol. 1, pl. 25; Edwards, Collection of Flowers, s.v. “Pinks Royal,” “Carnation,” “Indian Pinks.”

51. Art of Painting, p. 46; Botanical Magazine (1787), vol. 1, pl. 89; Chippendale, Director, pl. 195; Sheraton, Drawing-Book, “Accompaniment,” pl. 3; Smith, Designs for Household Furniture, pl. 26.

52. Heckle, The Florist, pl. 19; J. H. Wynne, Choice Emblems, Natural, Historical, Fabulous, Moral, Divine (London: G. Riley, 1777), pp. 33–34; William P. C. Barton, A Flora of North America (Philadelphia: Mathew Carey and Sons, 1821), pl. 26.

53. Young Ladies’ Drawing Book, pp. 21–22, pl. 10; Heckle, The Florist, pls. 14, 24; A. Heckle, The Lady’s Drawing Book (London: T. Bowles, 1753), pl. 17; Curtis’s Botanical Magazine (1803), vol. 8, pl. 781.

54. Designs from Jean Henri Prosper Pouget fils, Nouveau Recueil de Parures et Joaillerie (Paris, 1764), as illustrated in Alexander Speltz, The Styles of Ornament (1906; reprint of 2d ed., New York: Dover Publications, 1959), p. 557, nos. 7, 8; Chippendale, Director, pl. 15; Christopher Gilbert, The Life and Works of Thomas Chippendale (New York: Tabard Press, 1978), pp. 162–63; Drawing Book of Flowers, n.p. (flowers tied with bowknots); Edwards, Collection of Flowers, “Indian Pinks”; Trade catalogue of ornaments probably made of wood or plaster, England, ca. 1780, pp. 17, 25, Victoria and Albert Museum, London (microfilm, DCM).

55. Speltz, Styles of Ornament, pp. 141 (no. 1), 577 (no. 3); Trade catalogue of ornaments, pp. 1, 2, 5, 6.

56. Classical Ornament of the Eighteenth Century Designed and Engraved by Michelangelo Pergolesi (1792; reprint, New York: Dover Publications, 1970), pl. 48, nos. 275, 289; Hope, Household Furniture, pls. 31, 59. For a related wavelike border, see F. Edward Hulme, Principles of Ornamental Art (London: Cassell Petter and Galpin, 1875), fig. 250, the source given as a Greek vase in the British Museum, London.

57. Classical Ornament Designed by Pergolesi, pl. 14, bottom, pl. 48, nos. 283, 288.

58. Young Artist’s Assistant, pl. 27; Young Ladies’ Drawing Book, pp. 11, 17; Art of Painting,
pp. 23–24.

59. Smith, Designs for Household Furniture, pl. 49, lower right. See also Hope, Household Furniture, pls. 12 (no. 4), 22 (no. 4), 29 (no. 1).

60. Trade catalogue of ornaments, p. 7, left center; Giocondo Albertolli, [Ornamenti Diversi] (Milano?: 1781–1787), pl. 12, bottom; Speltz, Styles of Ornament, p. 602, no. 5; Thomas Sheraton, The Cabinet Dictionary, 2 vols. (London: W. Smith, 1803), vol. 1, pl. 9, no. 3; Saxe, ed., Old-Time Advertising, p. 129, no. 320; Rudolph Ackermann, Pattern Card of Embossed Ornaments in Gold or White ([probably London], ca. 1810), p. 4, no. 153; Montgomery, Printed Textiles, fig. 127, pl. 6.

61. Hope, Household Furniture, pls. 35, 36, 52; Speltz, Styles of Ornament, p. 78, nos. 2, 3, p. 135, no. 1; Gilbert, Thomas Chippendale, p. 190, fig. 345; Lorenzo Roccheggiani, Invenzioni Diverse di Mobili ed Utensilj Sacri e Profani (Rome, ca. 1806), pl. 42; Ackermann, Pattern Card, p. 4, no. 125.

62. Michael Olmert, “The Hospitable Pineapple,” Colonial Williamsburg 20, no. 2 (winter 1997–1998): 46–57; Montgomery, Printed Textiles, fig. 59; Ring, Girlhood Embroidery, 2:494, 496.

63. Grant, ed., Manual of Heraldry, p. 64; Classical Ornament Designed by Pergolesi, pls. 5, 6, 16, 56a, 58 (no. 375); Hope, Household Furniture, pls. 2, 7, 9, 11, 19, 20, 25, 45, 47, 60; Pauline Agius, Ackermann’s Regency Furniture and Interiors (Marlborough, England: Crowood Press, 1984), pls. 4, 9, 17, 20, 24. For other contemporary publications illustrating the wreath, see C. A. Busby, A Collection of Designs for Modern Establishments (London: J. Taylor, [1808]), pl. 24; George Smith, A Collection of Ornamental Designs after the Manner of the Antique (London: J. Taylor, [1812]), pls. 8, 22.

64. L. D. Chapin in Providence Patriot and Columbian Phenix, July 13, 1825.

65. Young Ladies’ Drawing Book, p. 19. For illustrations of specimen shells, see Artist’s Vade Mecum, pl. 84; Elizabeth Mayo, Lessons on Shells (New York: Peter Hill, 1834), pls. 4, 7, 9.

66. Mayo, Lessons on Shells, pl. 4; Young Ladies’ Drawing Book, p. 19.

67. Montgomery, Printed Textiles, fig. 383; John Warren, Conchologist (Boston: Russel, Odiorne, and Metcalf, 1834), p. 5.

68. Hulme, Principles of Ornamental Art, p. iv.

69. James Page, Guide for Drawing the Acanthus and Every Description of Ornamental Foliage (London: Atchley, 184?), pp. 169–71; Speltz, Styles of Ornament, pp. 55, 60, 79; Agius, Ackermann’s Regency Furniture, pls. 32, 49; Bolton, Robert and James Adam, 1:84; Busby, Collection of Designs, pls. 2, 25; John Crunden, The Joyner and Cabinet-Maker’s Darling, or Pocket Director (London: A. Webley, 1770), pl. 20; Hope, Household Furniture, pls. 9, 20, 24, 26, 29, 43; Classical Ornament Designed by Pergolesi, pls. 25 (no. 78), 33 (nos. 158, 165, 166), 58 (nos. 374, 377, 381), 61 (no. 402); Smith, Designs for Household Furniture, pls. 4, 158.

70. Hulme, Principles of Ornamental Art, nos. 115–20; Dessins de Divers Ornemens et Moulures Antiques et Modernes (Paris: Jombert, [after 1751]), pl. A, center; Gilbert, Thomas Chippendale, fig. 125; Trade catalogue of ornaments, pp. 3, 5; Hope, Household Furniture, pls. 14, 16, 20, 28, 30, 38, 39, 42, 44; Agius, Ackermann’s Regency Furniture, pls. 3, 43 (rope), 74; Ornaments Displayed on a Full-size for Working Proper for All Carvers, Painters, &c. (London: L. and J. Taylor, ca. 1800), pl. 20, bottom; Classical Ornament Designed by Pergolesi, pls. 22 (nos. 96, 99), 58 (no. 382).

71. Saxe, ed., Old-Time Advertising, p. 78, bottom, 129; Robb, Specimens of Printing Types, pp. 4, 9; Trade catalogue of ornaments, p. 2, center right; Grant, ed., Manual of Heraldry, pp. 55, 71, 133; Florence M. Montgomery, Textiles in America, 1650–1870, (New York: W. W. Norton, 1983), p. 33, fig. 22; Abbott Lowell Cummings, comp., Bed Hangings: A Treatise on Fabrics and Styles in the Curtaining of Beds, 1650–1850 (Boston: Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, 1961), figs. 5, 33, 43; Hope, Household Furniture, pl. 19, no. 6; Smith, Designs for Household Furniture, pls. 2, 8, 26.

72. Ackermann, Pattern Card, p. 4, nos. 142–44; Agius, Ackermann’s Regency Furniture, pl. 3; Chippendale, Director, pls. 24, 25, 45, 84, 92, 150, 183, 185–88; George Hepplewhite, The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer’s Guide (1794; reprint of 3d ed., New York: Dover Publications, 1969), pls. 9, 12; Hope, Household Furniture, pl. 45; Classical Ornament Designed by Pergolesi, pls. 6, 16; Trade catalogue of ornaments, p. 17; J. Dumont Le Romain, Livre de Nouveaux Trophez (Paris: Huquier, ca. 1740–1770), pl. 5; Alexandre Le Noir, Nouvelle Collection D’Arabesques (Paris: Treuttel and Würtz, [1800]), pl. 2; Montgomery, Printed Textiles, figs. 9a, 290, 421.

73. For the survey trophies, see Classical Ornament Designed by Pergolesi, pl. 16; Ackermann, Pattern Card, p. 4, no. 144; Unidentified cahier of ornament engraved by Berthault ([probably Paris], ca. 1730–1770), pp. 3, 4; Le Noir, Collection D’Arabesques, pl. 2; William Caslon, A Specimen of Cast Ornaments (London: C. Whittingham, 1795), nos. 72, 75; Robb, Specimens of Printing Types, metal ornaments, no. 53; Saxe, ed., Old-Time Advertising, metal ornaments, nos. 70, 399, 400; Trade catalogue of ornaments, p. 17.

74. For trophies with bows and square quivers, see Classical Ornament Designed by Pergolesi, pl. 6; Le Romain, Nouveaux Trophez, pl. 5; Unidentified French cahier, p. 3, upper left; Edwards, Collection of Flowers, n.p.; Caslon, Specimen of Cast Ornaments, no. 76; Binny and Ronaldson Specimen Book of 1809, no. 72.

75. Speltz, Styles of Ornament, pp. 74, 127, 152, 171, 261, 291, 308, 360, 366, 391, 419, 432, 490, 499, 571, 601; Chippendale, Director, pl. 84; Classical Ornament Designed by Pergolesi, pl. 56a; Hope, Household Furniture, pls. 11, 23, 58; Smith, Designs for Household Furniture, pls. 8, 45; Smith, Ornamental Designs after the Antique, pl. 20; Agius, Ackermann’s Regency Furniture, pls. 13, 14, 38; Ackermann, Pattern Card, p. 6; Trade catalogue of ornaments, p. 20; Unidentified trade catalogue of ornaments (France, ca. 1800), pl. 6, no. 223. For lion’s-mask furniture hardware, see Charles F. Montgomery, American Furniture: The Federal Period (New York: Viking Press, 1966), cats. 408, 415.

76. For other classical motifs in the Nestell Drawing Book, see the star (fig. 68), the urn (fig. 80), the lion’s mask (fig. 73), the quiver and bow (figs. 72, 73), the cherub (figs. 80, 81), the quarter-fan (fig. 82), the grapevine (figs. 57–59), the acorn and leaf (fig. 56), the continuous open-loop scroll (figs. 48, 49), and mythological subjects (figs. 76, 77).

77. Speltz, Styles of Ornament, pp. 48, 51, 56, 80, 82, 90, 345; Ackermann, Pattern Card, p. 9, nos. 1, 2; Robert Oresko, ed., The Works in Architecture of Robert and James Adam (London: St. Martin’s Press, 1975), p. 98; Albertolli, [Ornamenti Diversi], pl. 16, top; G. Richardson and Son, A Collection of Ornaments in the Antique Style (London, 1816), pl. 30, center; A. Pierretz, Rechezches de Plusieurs Beaux Morceaux D’Ornemens Antiques et Modernes (Paris: Pierre Mariette le fils, ca. 1740–1780), pl. 22, bottom; Bolton, Robert and James Adam, 2:38; Hope, Household Furniture, pl. 15, no. 4; Gilbert, Thomas Chippendale, figs. 32, 33; Roccheggiani, Invenzioni Diverse, pl. 42; Sheraton, Drawing-Book, facing p. 430 and “Accompaniment,” pp. 15–16.

78. Page, Guide for Drawing the Acanthus, pp. 173–77.

79. Speltz, Styles of Ornament, p. 80; Dessins de Divers Ornements, p. 3, left center; Montgomery, Printed Textiles, p. 131, fig. 103; Agius, Ackermann’s Regency Furniture, pl. 98.

80. Sheraton, Drawing-Book, p. 228; Thomas Bulfinch, The Age of the Fable, or Beauties of Mythology (Boston: S. W. Tilton, 1855), pp. 210–11.

81. P. G. Woodcock, Short Dictionary of Mythology (New York: Philosophical Library, 1953), pp. 15, 95–96.

82. Montgomery, Printed Textiles, figs. 293, 294; Wendy A. Cooper, Classical Taste in America, 1800–1840 (New York: Abbeville Press, 1993), pp. 86–91, 142–54, fig. 153; Sheraton, Drawing-Book, “Accompaniment,” pl. 11; Classical Ornament Designed by Pergolesi, pl. 35; F. Knight, Knight’s Gems, or Device Book (London: J. Williams, 183?), pl. 41, center; Ackermann, Pattern Card, pp. 4, 5, 7, 8, 10.

83. For Doolittle’s Inauguration of George Washington, see Marshall B. Davidson, Life in America, 2 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin, 1951), 1:153; Marcus Cunliffe, The Nation Takes Shape: 1789–1837, Chicago History of American Civilization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959), p. 126.

84. For the Hayward trade card, see Nancy Goyne Evans, American Windsor Chairs (New York: Hudson Hills Press, 1996), fig. 7–26. For the du Pont label, see Betty-Bright Low and Jacqueline Hinsley, Sophie du Pont: A Young Lady in America (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987), p. 21. Binny and Ronaldson Specimen Book of 1809, no. 70.

85. Young Artist’s Assistant, pl. 31; Mr. Lens, A New and Compleat Drawing-Book (London: B. Dickinson, 1751), n.p.; Sheraton, Drawing-Book, “Accompaniment,” p. 13.

86. Hepplewhite, Guide, pl. 58; Trade catalogue of ornaments (England), p. 17.

87. Whittock, Painters’ Guide, p. 20; Orson Campbell, Treatise on Carriage, Sign, and Ornamental Painting (De Ruyter, New York: Russel R. Lewis, 1841), p. 111.

88. Whittock, Painters’ Guide, pp. 55–63.

89. Sheraton, Drawing-Book, “Accompaniment,” p. 16.

90. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., s.v. “ornament.”

91. Stiles Tuttle Colwill, Francis Guy, 1760–1820 (Baltimore: Maryland Historical Society, 1981), pp. 23–24; Finlay brothers in Federal Gazette and Baltimore Daily Advertiser (Baltimore, Md.), January 31, 1803, and November 8, 1805, as quoted and discussed in William Voss Elder III, Baltimore Painted Furniture, 1800–1840 (Baltimore: Baltimore Museum of Art, 1972),
pp. 10–11.

92. For New York chairs with landscape scenes, see Montgomery, Federal Furniture, cats. 469, 470. Benjamin W. Branson Accounts, 1831–1835, appended to Probate Records, DCM; Wheaton and Davis (Davies) in New-York Evening Post, June 14, 1817, reference courtesy of Michael K. Brown.

93. Ezra Ames Account Book, 1790–1797, New-York Historical Society (hereinafter cited as NYHS), New York.

94. Jean Lipman, Rufus Porter Rediscovered: Artist, Inventor, Journalist, 1792–1884 (New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1980), pl. 11; Jean Lipman, “Rufus Porter: Yankee Wall Painter,” Art in America 38, no. 3 (October 1950): fig. 24; Nina Fletcher Little, “Painted Scenes on Country Furnishings,” American Art Journal 9, no. 2 (November 1977): fig. 3. For the chair with hunter and horse, see Nancy Goyne Evans, American Windsor Furniture (New York: Hudson Hills Press, 1997), fig. 1–44. For one chair from the suite of seating furniture, see Evans, American Windsor Chairs, fig. 3–159.

95. Ezra Ames Account Book, 1797–1802, NYHS; Daniel Rea, Jr., Daybook, 1772–1800, Baker Library (hereinafter cited as BL), Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; Davidson Waste Book, work billed on May 22, 1797.

96. Nina Fletcher Little, American Decorative Wall Painting, 1700–1850 (New York: Studio Publications, 1952), figs. 36, 37; Zilla Rider Lea, ed., The Ornamented Chair (Rutland, Vt.: Charles E. Tuttle, 1960), p. 53, fig. 39.

97. For wooden hearth equipment and tea boards, see James E. Kilbourn, Norwalk Gazette (Norwalk, Conn.), April 8, 1823.

98. Finlay brothers in Federal Gazette and Baltimore Daily Advertiser, November 8, 1805, as quoted in Elder, Baltimore Painted Furniture, p. 11; Daniel Rea, Jr., Daybook, 1789–1793, BL; Davidson Waste Book, work billed on December 21, 1793, and March 18, 1795.

99. Silas Cheney Account Book, 1802–1807, Litchfield Historical Society, Litchfield, Conn. (microfilm, DCM), work billed between December 1804 and October 1806; Titus Preston Ledger, 1795–1842, Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University, New Haven, Conn., work billed ca. 1811.

100. Davidson Waste Book, work billed on June 13, 1799.

101. For the decorated box, see American Antiques from Israel Sack Collection, 10 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Highland House Publishers, 1969 to present), 6:1524. For the decorated drop-leaf table, see Robert Bishop, Folk Painters of America (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1979), p. 55.

102. Nolen and Gridley in Columbian Centinel (Boston), December 12, 1810; David Alling Ledger, 1815–1818, New Jersey Historical Society (hereinafter cited as NJHS), Newark, N.J. (microfilm, DCM).

103. Thomas Boynton Ledger, 1810–1817, Dartmouth College Library, Hanover, N.H. (microfilm, DCM).

104. For the chair with twisted cones in the crest decoration, see Lea, ed., Ornamented Chair, p. 68.

105. Finlay brothers in Federal Gazette and Baltimore Daily Advertiser, November 8, 1805, as quoted in Elder, Baltimore Painted Furniture, p. 11; Nolen and Gridley in Columbian Centinel, December 12, 1810; Alling Ledger, work billed 1815–1816.

106. For chairs with grape composition ornament, see Evans, American Windsor Chairs, figs. 7–64, 7–118. Alling Ledger.

107 Davidson Waste Book; John Doggett Daybook, 1802–1809, DCM, work billed in July 1805; Alling Ledger, work billed in 1815; David Alling Invoice Book, 1819–1820, NJHS. For chair with pineapple in crest, see Dean A. Fales, Jr., American Painted Furniture, 1660–1880 (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1972), p. 206.

108. Alling Ledger.

109. For the Seymour commode and Prior sewing box, see Fales, American Painted Furniture, pp. 94, 182–83.

110. L. D. Chapin in Providence Patriot and Columbian Phenix, July 13, 1825; Boynton Ledger; Nolen and Gridley in Columbian Centinel, December 12, 1810.

111. For an English chair with key border, see Lea, ed., Ornamented Chair, p. 28, fig. 13. Nolen and Gridley in Columbian Centinel, December 12, 1810. A key border is present in a set of neoclassical chairs thought to have been designed about 1808 by Benjamin Henry Latrobe for William Waln of Philadelphia; see Cooper, Classical Taste, p. 116. The key border also appears in Baltimore furniture and possibly dates as early as 1805; see Gregory R. Weidman, Furniture in Maryland, 1740–1940 (Baltimore: Maryland Historical Society, 1984), cat. 54; Fales, American Painted Furniture, p. 141.

112. For use of the guilloche border in English furniture, see Maurice Tomlin, Catalogue of Adam Period Furniture (London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1982), pp. 11, 44, 66. Finlay brothers in Federal Gazette and Baltimore Daily Advertiser, November 8 1805, as quoted in Elder, Baltimore Painted Furniture, p. 11. For a discussion of the Finlays and their work, see Gregory R. Weidman, “The Painted Furniture of John and Hugh Finlay,” Antiques 143, no. 5 (May 1993): 745–48.

113. For a guilloche border with florets in English furniture, see Tomlin, Adam Period Furniture, p. 4. Weidman, “Painted Furniture of John and Hugh Finlay,” p. 746, pl. 4, center; Davidson Waste Book.

114. Finlay brothers in Federal Gazette and Baltimore Daily Advertiser, November 8, 1805, as quoted in Elder, Baltimore Painted Furniture, p. 11.

115. Doggett Daybook. For an illustration of the cornice, see Fales, American Painted Furniture, p. 117.

116. Weidman, “Painted Furniture of John and Hugh Finlay,” pl. 4, right; Alling Ledger.

117. Gregory R. Weidman, “The Furniture of Classical Maryland, 1815–1845,” in Classical Maryland, 1815–1845, edited by Gregory R. Weidman and Jennifer F. Goldsborough (Baltimore: Maryland Historical Society, 1993), p. 93.

118. For wallpaper borders, one documented, see Janet Waring, Early American Stencil Decorations (1937; reissue, Watkins Glen, N.Y.: Century House, 1968), figs. 27, 28. Richard C. Nylander, Elizabeth Redmond, and Penny J. Sander, Wallpaper in New England (Boston: Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, 1986), p. 13. For artist self-portrait, see Paul S. D’Ambrosio and Charlotte M. Evans, Folk Art’s Many Faces (Cooperstown, N.Y.: New York State Historical Association, 1987), cat. 112. Elder, Baltimore Painted Furniture, p. 61; Israel Sack, Celebrating Our 90th Anniversary (New York: By the firm, 1993), p. 101.

119. Davidson Waste Book; Helene Smith, Catalogue: Tavern Signs of America (Greensburg, Pa.: McDonald/Swärd Publishing, 1988), pp. 17, 28; Mable M. Swan, “Early Sign Painters,” Antiques 13, no. 5 (May 1928): 403, 405.

120. Nolen and Gridley in Columbian Centinel, December 12, 1810; Boynton Ledger. For the Connecticut drum, see John Tarrant Kenney, The Hitchcock Chair (New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1971), p. 89. Rea Daybook, 1789–1793.

121. Daniel Rea, Jr., Daybook, 1778–1798, BL, work billed in January 1786; Ames Account Book, 1790–1797.

122. Rea Daybook, 1789–1793, work on cornices and floor cloth billed in 1791; Hezekiah Reynolds, Directions for House and Ship Painting (1812; facsimile ed., Worcester, Mass.: American Antiquarian Society, 1978), pp. 18–19. For additional references to objects painted mahogany color, see William Gray Ledger (Salem, Mass.), 1774–1818, Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Mass. (microfilm, DCM); Davidson Waste Book; Ames Account Book, 1790–1797.

123. Rea Daybooks, 1789–1793 and 1772–1800; Gray Ledger; Reynolds, House and Ship Painting, p. 20.