Footnotes

1. This study is based on information drawn from more than 230 original documents, comprising principally account sheets and books, and collections of family and business papers. The records extend in date from the late colonial period to about 1850 and range in place of origin from Maine to Virginia.

2. Silas Ellis Cheney Daybook, Litchfield, Connecticut, 1802–1807, account with Charles Cilbern, Oct. 18, 1802, Litchfield Historical Society, Litchfield, Connecticut (hereafter cited LHS); Jane C. Nylander, Our Own Snug Fireside: Images of the New England Home, 1760–1860 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1994), figs. 119, 124, 127: Elisabeth Donaghy Garrett, At Home: The American Family, 1750–1870 (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1990), pp. 97, 107, 170.

3. References to kitchen tables appear in 67 documents used in this study. Pine and whitewood table in Elisha Harlow Holmes Daybook, Essex, Connecticut, 1825–1850, account with Abby Parker, October 10, 1828, Connecticut State Library, Hartford (hereafter cited CSL). Job E. Townsend Account Book, Newport, Rhode Island, 1803–1828, account with Mary Ann Marble, September 9, 1822, Newport Historical Society, Newport, Rhode Island, (hereafter cited NHS); Elizur Barnes Account Book, Middletown, Connecticut, 1821–1825, account with Silas Rice, February 5, 1822, Middlesex Historical Society, Middletown, Connecticut; Samuel Williams Bill to John Cadwalader, Philadelphia, March 14–23, 1770, Gen. John Cadwalader Papers, Cadwalader Collection, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (hereafter cited HSP).

4. Philemon Robbins Account Book, Hartford, Connecticut, 1833–1836, account with Ebenezer Allen, May 15, 1834, Connecticut Historical Society, Hartford (hereafter cited CHS); Titus Preston Ledger, Wallingford, Connecticut, 1795–1817, account with Elias Gaylord, March 23, 1805, Sterling Library, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (hereafter cited Yale).

5. Garrett, At Home, p. 96; Holmes Daybook, account with Mason H. Post, March 6, 1830.

6. Stephen Badlam, Jr., Bill to Maj. Gen. Henry Knox, Boston, September–November 1784, Henry Knox Papers, New England Historic Genealogical Society, Boston, Massachusetts.

7. Oliver Moore Account Book, East Granby, Connecticut, 1808–1821, account with Erastus Holcomb, May 15, 1820, CHS; William Barker Account Book, Providence, Rhode Island, 1750–1772, account with Jabez Bowen, Jr., 1767, Rhode Island Historical Society, Providence (hereafter cited RIHS).

8. True Currier Account Book, Deerfield, New Hampshire, 1815–1838, account with David Prescott, January 1822, Joseph Downs Collection of Manuscripts and Printed Ephemera, Winterthur Library, Winterthur, Delaware (hereafter cited DCM); David Evans Daybook, Philadelphia, 1774–1782, account with George Bringhurst, 1782, HSP.

9. Skipper Lunt Account Book, Newbury, Massachusetts, 1736–1772, accounts with Joel Bartlet, May 1749, Benjamin Tucker, January 1744, and Isaac Merrill, January 1745, Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Massachusetts (hereafter cited PE); Moses Parkhurst Account Book, Paxton, Massachusetts, 1814–1861, account with Abigail Bursley, December 30, 1837, Old Sturbridge Village, Sturbridge, Massachusetts (hereafter cited OSV).

10. Elisha Hawley Account Book, Ridgefield, Connecticut, 1781–1805, account with Moses Ingersol, August 14, 1794, CHS; Luke Houghton Ledger A, Barre, Massachusetts, 1816–1827, accounts with Abigail Wheeler, July 14, 1824, and Dr. Anson Bates, September 15, 1820, Barre Historical Society, Barre, Massachusetts (hereafter cited Barre); Miles Benjamin Daybook and Ledger, Cooperstown, New York, 1821–1829, account with H. Luce and Company, June 13, 1825, New York State Historical Association, Cooperstown (hereafter cited NYSHA).

11. Jacob Bachman Account Book and Daybook, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, 1816– 1837 and 1822–1861, and Friedrich Bastian Account Book, Bethel Township, Dauphin County, Pennsylvania, 1802–1829, DCM; John Ellinger Account Book, Palmyra, Lebanon County, Pennsylvania, 1832–1845, Pennsylvania Farm Museum, Landis Valley; Abraham Overholt Account Book, Plumstead Township, Bucks County, Pennsylvania, 1790–1833, and Peter Ranck Account Book, Jonestown, Lebanon County, Pennsylvania, 1794–1817, in The Accounts of Two Pennsylvania German Furniture Makers, Sources and Documents of the Pennsylvania Germans, III, edited and translated by Alan G. Keyser, Larry M. Neff, and Frederick Weiser (Breinigsville, Pa.: The Pennsylvania German Society, 1978).

12. Overholt Account Book, account with Magdelena Gross, April 14, 1827, in Keyser et al., Accounts, p. 19; Lewis Miller, Sketches and Chronicles (York, Pa.: Historical Society of York County, 1966), p. 72.

13. Overholt Account Book, accounts with Jacob Holdman, August 31, 1792, and Johannes Detweiler, March 17, 1802 (brown paint), and Magdelena Gross, April 14, 1827 (red paint), in Keyser et al., Accounts, pp. 7, 12, 19; Bachman Account Book, account with Martin Farry, August 10, 1819, and Daybook, accounts with Jacob Rohrer, April 18, 1823, and Adam Kindig, April 9, 1836.

14. Nylander, Snug Fireside, pp. 199–202; Overholt Account Book, account with Christian Gross, March 31, 1804, in Keyser et al., Accounts, p. 13.

15. Ellinger Account Book, account with William Clark, November 1834; William Rawson Account Book, Killingly, Connecticut, 1835–1853, account with Mr. Payson, August 23, 1840, OSV; Israel Houghton Account Book, Petersham, Massachusetts, 1811–1847, account with Gardner Stevens, September 9, 1811, DCM.

16. Pairs of buckets are recorded in the following: Daniel and Samuel Proud, Daybook and Ledger, Providence, Rhode Island, 1810–1834, account with Harvey Robinson, January 22, 1819, RIHS; Ebenezer Smith, Jr., Bill to Robert Rantoul, Beverly, Massachusetts, October 1796–June 1797, Papers of Robert Rantoul, Beverly Historical Society, Beverly, Massachusetts. Pail bail in Barnes Account Book, account with Sage and Button, December 23, 1821; bucket bottoms in John E. Mehargue Ledger, probably Halifax, Pennsylvania, 1825–1860, credit account with John Barry, May 24, 1844, DCM. Joseph Griswold Account Book, Buckland, Massachusetts, 1816–1844, account with Josiah Spaulding, April 1818, and Daybook, 1816–1843, accounts with Josiah Spaulding and Asa Nichols, March 25, 1818, Private collection (microfilm, DCM); Allen Holcomb Account Book, New Lisbon, New York, 1809–1828, accounts with Jacob Tull, March 24, 1824, and Aaron Wing, July 1, 1822, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

17. Wash trough in Bachman Daybook, accounts with Christian Bachman, April 8, 1824, and Jacob Brackbill, April 23, 1825; cedar tub in Barker Account Book, 1750–1772, account with William Proud, July 17, 1763. F. Andrew Michaux, Jr., The North American Sylva, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: J. Dobson, 1842), 3: 186.

18. David Evans Daybook, Philadelphia, 1784–1806, account with Charles Shoemaker, April 9, 1791, HSP; Unidentified Woodworker’s Daybook, York, Maine, ca. 1761–1781, account with Capt. Joseph Havies, May 2, 1773, PE (moved from Boston, ca. 1761; see note 78).

19. Nylander, Snug Fireside, pp. 130–40; Samuel Douglas Account Book, near Canton, Connecticut, 1810–1858, account with Isaac Williams, May 3, 1823, CSL; Overholt Account Book, account with Jacob Lederman, March 4, 1822, in Keyser et al., Accounts, p. 18; Job Danforth Ledger, Providence, Rhode Island, 1788–1818, account with Amos Throop, December 12, 1791, RIHS. Wash pounder in David Alling Ledger, Newark, New Jersey, 1803–1853, account with Pruden Alling, November 8, 1832, New Jersey Historical Society, Newark. Silas Ellis Cheney Daybook, Litchfield, Connecticut, 1813–1846, account with Orman Marsh, May 15, 1817, LHS; Daniel and Samuel Proud Ledger, Providence, Rhode Island, 1770–1825, account with Duty Roberts, February 10, 1803, RIHS.

20. Phillip Filer Account Book, near Rome, New York, 1798–1839, account with Mr. Hathaway, June 20, 1800, DCM; Moore Account Book, account with B. Philips, January 5, 1811; George White Letter to Nicholas Low, Ballston Spa, New York, to New York City, November 6, 1803, Nicholas Low Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (hereafter cited LC); Nylander, Snug Fireside, pp. 130–40.

21. Holcomb Account Book, accounts with Dr. Hailman, October 26, 1824, and Dan Smith, March 30, 1813; Jonathan Gavit Bill to Timothy Orne, Salem, Massachusetts, May–June 1763, Timothy Orne Papers, PE; Joel Mount Ledger, Juliustown, New Jersey, 1829–1865, account with Samuel Ellis, November 19, 1846, HSP.

22. James Francis Account Book, Wethersfield, Connecticut, 1797–1835, account with Thomas Mygate, March 17, 1797, CHS; Nathaniel Kinsman Bill to Josiah Brown, Gloucester, Massachusetts, January 1763–July 1768, Nathaniel Kinsman Papers, PE; Nylander, Snug Fireside, p. 139; David Hall Daybook, Chatham, Connecticut, 1785–1812, account with Capt. Seth Overton, December 12, 1793, CHS.

23. Joseph Cotton Bill to Miss Dolly Wendell, Portsmouth, New Hampshire, January– February 1800, Wendell Papers, Baker Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts (hereafter cited BL); Smith and Ghiselin Bill to Humberston Skipwith, Mecklenburg County, Virginia, October 30, 1819, Swem Library, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia (hereafter cited SL); Benjamin Daybook and Ledger, account with Richard Cooley, December 21, 1825.

24. Cheney Daybook, 1802–1807, account with Oliver Wolcott, December 3, 1802; Benoni A. Shepherd Bill to Daniel Wadsworth, Hartford, Connecticut, July–August 1829, Daniel Wadsworth Papers, CHS; Silas Ellis Cheney Ledger, Litchfield, Connecticut, 1799–1817, account with Oliver Wolcott, May 9, 1801, LHS; J. E. Townsend Account Book, account with William E. Williams, May 24, 1823; Filer Account Book, account with George Huntington, May 24, 1799.

25. Nylander, Snug Fireside, pp. 140–42; Reubin Loomis Account Book, Windsor-Suffield, Connecticut, 1796–1836, account with Almeron Gillot, December 1800, CHS; Paul Jenkins Daybook, Kennebunk, Maine, 1836–1841, account with Capt. George Lord, September 26, 1839, DCM.

26. The Krimmel drawing showing flatirons stored above the hearth is illustrated in Garrett, At Home, p. 166; Abner Haven Account Book, Framingham, Massachusetts, 1809–1830, accounts with Capt. John J. Clark, July, September, 1820, DCM.

27. William Wayne Bill to Samuel Wallis, Philadelphia, February 18, 1770, photostat of unknown origin, DCM; Thomas Tufft Bill to Mrs. Mary Norris, Philadelphia, March– October 1783, Harrold E. Gillingham Collection, HSP; Evans Daybook, 1784–1806, account with Benjamin Poltney, March 3, 1787, and Daybook, 1774–1782, account with William Lane, May 23, 1776; Daniel Trotter Bill to Stephen Girard, Philadelphia, January–August 1786, Girard Papers, Girard College, Philadelphia (microfilm, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia); William Savery Bill to John Cadwalader, Philadelphia, August 1770–March 1771, Gen. John Cadwalader Papers, Cadwalader Collection, HSP.

28. Samuel Cheever Bill to Elias Hasket Derby, Salem, Massachusetts, February 1784– November 1785, Derby Papers, vol. 1, PE; Daniel Ross Account Book, Ipswich, Massachusetts, 1781–1804, account with Robert Farley, April 6, 1793, PE; Isaac Floyd Bill to Benjamin H. Hathorne, Medford, Massachusetts, August 31, 1799, Ward Family Manuscripts, PE.

29. For an illustration of bread making and a bread trough see Nylander, Snug Fireside, p. 197. Overholt Account Book, accounts with Magdelena Gross, April 14, 1827, Johannes Detweiler, March 30, 1796, and Henrich Kindig, March 26, 1803, in Keyser et al., Accounts, pp. 9, 12, 19; Bastian Account Book, account with John Smith, March 15, 1819; Hiram Taylor Account Book, Chester County, Pennsylvania, 1828–1855, account with David Wilson, March 29, 1836, DCM.

30. Joseph Griswold Ledger, Buckland, Massachusetts, 1804–1836, account with Joshua Welden, April 10, 1804, Private collection (microfilm, DCM), and Daybook, Accounts with Levi White, April 20, 1817, and Josiah Spaulding, May 1, 1822; Nathan Lukens Bill to Nathaniel Richardson, vicinity of Philadelphia, March–June 1814, Richardson Papers, Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania; John Austin Account Book, Massachusetts and New Hampshire, 1766–1803, account with Daniel Kusel, Methuen, Massachusetts, 1772, DCM; William Mather Account Book, Whately, Massachusetts, 1808–1825, account with Seth Clark, January 7, 1809, Historic Deerfield, Deerfield, Massachusetts.

31. Abraham Rees, The Cyclopaedia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Literature (Philadelphia: Samuel F. Bradford, 1810–1824), s.v. “bread”; Danforth Ledger, account with Rufus Waterman, January 17, 1807.

32. Barnes Account Book, account with Ephraim Bound, April 24, 1824; D. and S. Proud Ledger, account with Charles Boller, January–July 1779.

33. Bread box in R. Loomis Account Book, account with Jarusha Mather, May 1802; bread chest in Philemon Hinman Account Book, Plymouth, Connecticut, 1804–1817, account with Dudley Roberts, October 18, 1812, CHS. Titus Preston Ledger, Wallingford, Connecticut, 1811–1842, account with Merit Tuttle, October 2, 1821, Yale; Barnes Account Book, account with Samuel Starr, January 15, 1824.

34. Moore Account Book, account with State of Connecticut, February 15, 1813; Holcomb Account Book, account with Cornelius Janey, January 15, 1828.

35. Rees, Cyclopaedia, s.v. “gingerbread.”

36. Nathan Cleaveland Ledger, Franklin, Massachusetts, 1810–1828, account with Sanford Ware, February 1819, OSV; Ross Account Book, account with Asa Baker, February 1, 1802: Job E. Townsend Ledger, Newport, Rhode Island, 1794–1802, account with William Beebe, February 2, 1796, NHS.

37. A Dutch kitchen is illustrated in Louise Conway Belden, The Festive Tradition: Table Decoration and Desserts in America, 1650–1900 (New York: W. W. Norton for the Winterthur Museum, 1983), p. 191. Increase Pote Account Book, Portland, Maine, 1824–1830, account with William Capen, July 19, 1825, Maine Historical Society, Portland (hereafter cited MeHS); Ebenezer Porter Bill to Robert Manning, Salem, Massachusetts, December 16, 1824, Papers of Robert Manning, PE.

38. Thomas Tufft Bills to Mrs. Mary Norris, February 10, 1775, and March–October 1783, Norris Family Accounts, Gillingham Collection; Harriet Beecher Stowe, Oldtown Folks (Boston: Fields, Osgood, 1869), as quoted in Nylander, Snug Fireside, p. 271.

39. Milk pails in William Barker Account Book, Providence, Rhode Island, 1784–1787, account with Jethro Lapham, ca. 1785, RIHS. Alexander Low Account Book, Freehold, New Jersey, 1784–1826, account with Lowes Thomson, May 30, 1806, Monmouth County Historical Association, Freehold, New Jersey (hereafter cited MHA); Elisha Harlow Holmes Ledger, Essex, Connecticut, 1825–1830, account with Samuel Ingham, November 7, 1829, CHS; J. E. Townsend Ledger, account with John Taylor, February 6, 1806; Philip Deland Account Book, West Brookfield, Massachusetts, 1812–1846, account with Cheeny Dewing, May 4, 1844, OSV.

40. Nylander, Snug Fireside, pp. 199–202; Deland Account Book, account with Benjamin Babbit, August 25, 1835; Samuel Davison Ledger, Plainfield, Massachusetts, 1795–1824, account with Steven Worner, August 1801, Pocumtuck Valley Memorial Association, Deerfield, Massachusetts.

41. Josiah P. Wilder Daybook and Ledger, New Ipswich, New Hampshire, 1837–1861, accounts with Aaron Davis, June 22, 1837, and Cooper I. Blood, May 6, 1841, Private collection (typescript, Visual Resources Library, Winterthur; hereafter cited VRL); Gaius Perkins Ledger, Woodstock, Vermont, 1804–1824, credit account with Artemas Lawrence, February 1818, Vermont Historical Society, Montpelier (hereafter cited VHS); Ellinger Account Book, account with John Bixler, October 5, 1833; Danforth Ledger, account with Andrew Dexter, December 3, 1794; Overholt Account Book, account with Henrich Kindig, January 19, 1804, in Keyser et al., Accounts, p. 13.

42. Tub and press in Chapman Lee Ledger, Charlton, Massachusetts, 1799–1850, accounts with David Crage, May 1816, and Thomas Foskett, March 6, 1810, OSV; a press in Joseph Fairchild Account Book, Watertown, Connecticut, 1754–1806 and later, account with David Johnson, June 27, 1757, CHS. Samuel Hall Ledger, Middletown, Connecticut, 1754–1795, account with David Sage, June 21, 1774, CHS; John Paine Account Book, Southold, New York, 1761–1815, account with Ezra L’Hommedieu, June 1, 1786, Institute for Colonial Studies, State University of New York, Stony Brook, New York.

43. Robert Whitelaw Ledger, Ryegate, Vermont, 1804–1831, accounts with James Whitelaw, Alexander Miller, and William Burroughs, 1807–1810, VHS.

44. Ranck Account Book, account with Christopher Rickert, May 23, 1799, in Keyser et al., Accounts, p. 87; Samuel Ashton Account Book, Philadelphia, 1794–1803, credit account with George Sower, March 11, 1803, DCM.

45. Sugar boxes in William Barker Account Book, Providence, Rhode Island, 1787–1798, estate account, July 1, 1798, RIHS; bowls in Oliver Avery Account Book, North Stonington, Connecticut, 1789–1813, account with Nathaniel Hewitt, June 19, 1794, DCM. Barker Account Book, 1750–1772, account with Deborah Rogers, May 4, 1772; D. and S. Proud Ledger, account with Gershom Jones, August 16, 1790; Job E. Townsend Account Book and Ledger, Newport, Rhode Island, 1778–1794, account with Sarah Lake, May 21, 1779, NHS; Filer Account Book, account with Matthew Brown, January 10, 1802; H. Taylor Account Book, account with Gen. Joshua Evans, November 14, 1835.

46. Samuel Wayne Bill to Samuel Coates, Philadelphia, June 12, 1788, Reynell and Coates Collection, BL; Barker Account Book, 1787–1798, estate account, July 1, 1798; Deland Account Book, accounts with Ebenezer and George Merriam, March 24, 1834, and Jacob Dupee, June 7, 1841; Benjamin Baker Account Book, Newport, Rhode Island, 1760–1792, account with Dr. Knowles, March 13, 1788, NHS.

47. Chopping trough in Jenkins Daybook, account with Mark Prime, November 26, 1836; chopping tray in Alexander H. Gilbert Account Book, Chester, Connecticut, 1831–1852, account with George H. Abernethy, March 8, 1839, CHS. Evans Daybook, 1774–1782, account with George Bringhurst, 1782; Williams Bill to Cadwalader, March 14–23, 1770.

48. Holmes Daybook, accounts with Mrs. Hill, October 9, 1826, William Williams, November 9, 1826, and Calvin Williams, September 17, 1829.

49. Belden, Festive Tradition, pp. 237–39; Solomon Fussell Account Book, Philadelphia, 1738–1748, accounts with John Naylor, August 21, 1742, and William Whitebread, June 2, 1747, Stephen Collins Papers, LC. “Sqush squesers” in Danforth Ledger, accounts with Gershom Jones, August 11, 1789, Richard Jackson, July 7, 1795, and Jabez Bowen, August 4, 1806; turning mentioned in D. and S. Proud Ledger, account with Jonathan W. Coy, July 23, 1799. Ross Account Book, account with Dr. John Manning, May 1783.

50. Kitchen of York Hotel illustrated in Lewis Miller, p. 24.

51. Ross Account Book, account with John Heard, December 7, 1793; Danforth Ledger, account with Amos Throop, February 13, 1798; Floyd Bill to Hathorne, August 31, 1799.

52. D. and S. Proud Ledger, account with Jonathan W. Coy, December 11, 1798; Barnes Account Book, account with William R. Swarthel, February 4, 1824.

53. D. and S. Proud ledger, account with Rufus Warren Kemball, December 9, 1820 (?); Thomas Boynton Ledger, Windsor, Vermont, 1810–1817, account with Stephen Conant, December 11, 1815, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire (hereafter cited DC); Lukens Bill to Richardson, March–June 1814.

54. Ellinger Account Book, account with Daniel Ulrich, October 16, 1835; Ritz cellar illustrated in Lewis Miller, p. 50.

55. Parkhurst Account Book, accounts with Jonathan Frost, December 13, 1819, and August 31, 1820; Isaac Ashton Account Book, Philadelphia, 1777–1794, account with C. Davis, February 20, 1793, DCM.

56. Advertisement of William Morgan, Pennsylvania Gazette (Philadelphia), November 9–16, 1732; Whitelaw Ledger, account with Robert Scott, March 1811; Deland Account Book, account with Jacob Dupee, December 30, 1840; George Cooper Bill to John Sanders, probably Schenectady, New York, May 20, 1820, Sanders Papers, New-York Historical Society, New York (hereafter cited NYHS); Holcomb Account Book, account with Joshua Weaver, July 1821.

57. Pot covers in Ross Account Book, account with Asa Baker, January 5, 1791. Haven Account Book, account with Abner Mellen, October 10, 1818; Hodghton and Company Bill to Samuel Larned, Lima, Peru, September 27, 1832, A. C. and R. W. Greene Collection, RIHS; Thomas J. Moyers and Fleming K. Rich Account Book, Wythe Court House, Virginia, 1834–1840, account with John Mayre, May 6, 1834, DCM.

58. Tea board in Baker Account Book, account with William Potter, March 7, 1792; tea waiters in Henry Potter Account Book, Newport, Rhode Island, 1771–1802, credit accounts with Edmund Townsend, March 27 and July 23, 1773, NHS. Jonathan Kettell Account Book, Newburyport, Massachusetts, 1781–1794, account with Capt. William Noyes, September 1789, PE; advertisement of John Tremain, New-York Gazette Revived in the Weekly Post-Boy (New York), August 26, 1751, as quoted in The Arts and Crafts in New York, 1726–1776, compiled by Rita S. Gottesman (1938; reprint, New York: Da Capa Press, 1970), pp. 118–19.

59. Robert Borland Bill to Richard Blow, Portsmouth, Virginia, April 29, 1791, Richard Blow Papers, SL; Henry Mann Bill to Maj. Thomas Jones, Richmond, Virginia, September 1789–January 1790, Papers of the Jones Family of Northumberland County, Virginia, LC; Joshua Delaplaine Account Book, New York, 1720s–1770s, account with Dr. Brownjohn, September (?) 12, 1741, NYHS; Job Townsend, Jr., Ledger, Newport, Rhode Island, 1750– 1778, account with Job Howland, May 14, 1769, NHS; Ephraim Haines Bill to Stephen Girard, Philadelphia, October 1806–November 1807, Girard Papers.

60. Low Account Book, account with John Craig, Jr., August 24, 1812; Hawley Account Book, account with John Watrons, October 16, 1793; Holcomb Account Book, account with Eliakim How, December 23, 1815; Lemuel Tobey Daybook, Dartmouth, Massachusetts, 1786–1792, account with Simpson Hart, October 20, 1791, OSV.

61. Joseph Symonds Account Book, Salem, Massachusetts, 1738–1766, account with Benjamin Osgood, November 12, 1753, PE. Batch of handles in Ross Account Book, account with Aaron Smith, January 27, 1792; ladles and dippers in Barker Account Books, 1750–1772 and 1787–1798, accounts with Jabez Bowen, Jr., September 9, 1768, and Barker estate, July 1, 1798; dipper repair in Barnes Account Book, account with Josiah Williams, May 17, 1824. Deland Account Book, account with E. and L. Merriam, June 23, 1840; William and John Richmond Bill to Almy and Brown, Providence, Rhode Island, July 3, 1799, Almy and Brown Papers, RIHS; Nathaniel Knowlton Account Book, Eliot, Maine, 1812–1859, account with John Raitt, 3d, March 28, 1827, MeHS.

62. George Short Account Book, Newburyport, Massachusetts, ca. 1807–1821, account with Thomas H. Balch, May 23, 1815, PE.

63. J. E. Townsend Account Book, account with Dr. Hazard, January 27, 1819.

64. Ellinger Account Book, accounts with Henry Garman, August 11, 1833, and William Yarkey, January 2, 1836; Overholt Account Book, account with Henrich Kindig, March 26, 1803, in Keyser et al., Accounts, p. 12; Hyde de Neuville sketch illustrated in Jadviga M. da Costa Nunes, Baroness Hyde de Neuville: Sketches of America, 1807–1822 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University, 1984), p. 20; Fussell Account Book, accounts with Robert Moore Taylor, January 2, 1741, Joseph Marshall, January 15, 1742, and (for hog bristles) Michael Hilton, April 23, 1741.

65. L. Houghton Ledger A, account with John Bacon, June 25, 1821; James Gere Ledger, Groton, Connecticut, 1809–1829, account with Richard Stroud, May 1, 1810, CSL; Nylander, Snug Fireside, p. 118; John Proud Bills to Albert C. Greene, East Greenwich, Rhode Island, 1820, 1827, Greene Collection.

66. Barnes Account Book, account with Josiah Williams and Company, May 2, 1822; Stephen Van Schanck Bill to Peter Gansevoort, Albany, New York, August 1834, Papers of Peter Gansevoort, Gansevoort-Lansing Collection, New York Public Library, New York (hereafter cited NYPL); Isaac Flagg Bill to Robert Rantoul, Beverly, Massachusetts, 1823, Papers of Robert Rantoul; William Barker Bill to Almy and Brown, Providence, Rhode Island, February 1793–September 1795, Almy and Brown Papers, RIHS.

67. Robert Mullen Bill to Stephen Collins, Philadelphia, July 21, 1789, Stephen Collins Papers, LC; Barnes Account Book, account with Samuel Eells, April 16, 1822.

68. Deland Account Book, accounts with Jacob Dupee, April 13, 1842, and November 9, 1843; Alling Ledger, account with Peter Jacobus, July 20, 1835; George Landon Account Book, Erie, Pennsylvania, 1813–1832, account with John Morris, January I, 1825, DCM; Whitelaw Ledger, account with Andrew Warden, September 16, 1807; Krimmel sketch illustrated in Garrett, At Home, p. 104.

69. Jacob Hinsdale Ledger, Harwinton, Connecticut, 1723–1774, account with Nathaniel Smith, December 1727, Yale; Robert Crage Ledger, Leicester, Massachusetts, 1757–1781, account with John Green, February 9, 1757, OSV.

70. Advertisement of Wright and McAllister, New-York Packet and the American Advertiser (New York), June 13, 1776, as quoted in Gottesman, Arts and Crafts, p. 256; advertisement of Francis Trumble, Pennsylvania Gazette, December 27, 1775.

71. Records of the 1820 United States Census of Manufactures, including James W. Moore, Rutherford County, Tennessee, and Uzziel Church, Brownsville, Union County, Indiana, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (microfilm, DCM).

72. Jonathan Dart Account Book, New London, Connecticut, 1793–1800, account with Ephraim Browning, March 11, 1796, and list of sales, March 1797, CHS; Crage Ledger, credit accounts with Samuel Richardson, May 4, 1768, and Thomas Green, 1777; Daniel Rea, Jr., Daybook, Boston, 1789–1793, account with Simon Hall, May 30, 1791, BL (microfilm, DCM); Landon Account Book, account with Ebenezer Graham, January 16, 1818; Amos Purinton (1777–1843), Weare, New Hampshire, as listed in Charles S. Parsons, “New Hampshire Notes” (typescript, VRL).

73. Holmes Daybook, account with Henry Sandford, December 17, 1827; Franklin letter, April 6, 1766, as quoted in Francis Phipps, The Collector’s Complete Dictionary of American Antiques (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1974), p. 549; Haven Account Book, account with William Clark, April 1813; Whitelaw Ledger, account with Samuel Clough, Jr., September 3, 1807.

74. Jeduthern Avery Account Book, Bolton-Coventry, Connecticut, 1811–1855, account with Joseph Talcott, October 1828, CHS; Robbins Account Book, accounts with Henry Hudson, December 28, 1835, and unidentified customer, November 3, 1834; Cheney Daybook, 1802– 1807, accounts with Sally Pierce, June 11 and 16, 1807; Silas Ellis Cheney Daybook, Litchfield, Connecticut, 1807–1813, account with Mrs. Adams, February 13, 1808, LHS; Daniel Trotter Bill of Accounts with Benjamin Thaw, Philadelphia, 1785–1798, DCM; Thomas Affleck Bill to John Cadwalader, Philadelphia, January–June 1775, Gen. John Cadwalader Papers, Cadwalader Collection.

75. Unidentified Cabinetmaker’s Account Book, vicinity of Fredericksburg, Virginia, 1767– 1777, account with Capt. Lawrence Taliaferro, October 10, 1775, DCM; D. and S. Proud Ledger, account with Elisha Peck, August 26, 1789; Hinsdale Ledger, account with unidentified customer (page torn), February 1728; John Wheeler Geer Account Book, Preston, Connecticut, 1774–1818, account with Charles Phelps, June 13, 1777, CHS.

76. Cleaveland Ledger, account with Daniel Thurston, 1828; Christopher Clark, “The Diary of an Apprentice Cabinetmaker: Edward Jenner Carpenter’s ‘Journal,’ 1844–45,” in Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, vol. 98, pt. 2 (Worcester, Mass.: by the society, 1989), pp. 358–60.

77. Bachman Daybook, accounts with Isaac McCalester, September 13, 1830, Francis Herr, September 19, 1832, and Benjamin Brackbill, August 9, 1837; Danforth Ledger, accounts with Thomas Jackson, October 20, 1791, and Isaac Pearce, November 23, 1806.

78. Ezekiel Smith Account Book, Taunton, Massachusetts, 1773–1831, account with Jonathan Bliss, April 24, 1778, DCM; Boynton Ledger, 1810–1817, account with William Leverett, October 22, 1816; Unidentified Woodworker’s Daybook, Boston, 1756–1761, account with John Avery, June 13, 1758, PE (moved to York, Maine, ca. 1761; see note 18).

79. Nylander, Snug Fireside, pp. 225–28; Extracts from the Diary of Jacob Hiltzheimer, of Philadelphia, 1765–1798, edited by Jacob Cox Parsons (Philadelphia: William F. Fell, 1893), pp. 10, 83.

80. Knowlton Account Book, account with Benjamin Lamson, August 30, 1814; O. Avery Account Book, accounts with Samuel Chapman, April 1815, and Cyrus Williams, July 16, 1815; Bastian Account Book, accounts with Martin Peck, April 5 and May 1, 1823; J. Gere Ledger, accounts with Henry F. Lamb, January 20 and April 3, 1815; Boynton Ledger, 1810–1817, account with William Ayers, May 21, 1816.

81. Nylander, Snug Fireside, pp. 177–78; Ebenezer Tracy, Sr., Inventory and Estate Division, Lisbon Township, New London County, Connecticut, 1803–1805, Genealogical Section, CSL.

82. Thomas Sheraton, The Cabinet Dictionary, 2 vols. (1803; reprint, New York: Praeger, 1970), 1: 42–44.

83. Christopher Gilbert, An Exhibition of Common Furniture (Leeds, England: Temple Newsam, 1982), fig. 7; Rawson Account Book, account with Mr. Carder, October 27, 1838; James Linacre Bill to Mr. Elmendorf, Albany, New York, June 12, 1794, Sanders Papers; Ranck Account Book, account with George Merk, January 21, 1811, in Keyser et al., Accounts, p. 171; R. Loomis Account Book, account with Dr. G. Wilks Hanchet, February 1806. A frog-back chair is illustrated in Nancy Goyne Evans, “Frog Backs and Turkey Legs: The Nomenclature of Vernacular Seating Furniture, 1740–1850,” in American Furniture, edited by Luke Beckerdite (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England for the Chipstone Foundation, 1996), p. 49, fig. 33.

84. Jacob Super Bill to Nathan Trotter, Philadelphia, December 27, 1821, Trotter Family Papers, BL; Samuel Williams Bill to John Cadwalader, Philadelphia, July 18, 1771, Cadwalader Collection; W. Wayne Bill to Wallis, February 18, 1770; Holmes Daybook, account with Richard W. Hart, October 22, 1828; Benjamin Daybook and Ledger, account with Daniel Huson, May 14, 1823.

85. Ross Account Book, account with John Lummas, April 1798; William G. Jones Bill to Sarah Ann Baily, Wilmington, Delaware, June 3, 1822, Latimer Papers, DCM; James Gere Ledger, Groton, Connecticut, 1809–1839, account with James Fanning, Jr., April 1826, CSL; Cheney Ledger, 1799–1817, account with Caleb Bacon, January 10, 1800; Solomon Cole Account Book, Glastonbury, Connecticut, 1794–1809, account with John Caswell, November 29, 1805, CHS.

86. Turn-up bedsteads are illustrated in Barry A. Greenlaw, New England Furniture at Williamsburg (Williamsburg, Va.: Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1974), cats. 19–21.

87. Holmes Daybook, account with Ansel Pratt, September 2, 1825; Barnes Account Book, account with Elisha Birdsey, March 21, 1822; Moore Account Book, accounts with Calvin Barber, January 28, 1818, and Phineas Newton, Jr., February 27, 1815.

88. Robbins Account Book, account with William G. Comstock, July 21, 1834; Harris Beckwith Ledger, Northampton, Massachusetts, 1803–1807, account with Asahel Pomeroy, February 6, 1805 (?), Forbes Library, Northampton, Massachusetts; Abner Taylor Account Book, Lee, Massachusetts, 1806–1832, account with Asahel Foot, July 29, 1815, DCM; J. E. Townsend Ledger, account with Gilbert Chase, January 25, 1800; Danforth Ledger, account with Stephen Abbott, 1803.

89. R. Loomis Account Book, account with Amos Curtis, November 1821; Charles C. Robinson Daybook, Philadelphia, 1809–1825, account with David Sheldrake, January 28, 1817, HSP; A. Taylor Account Book, account with Elisha Foot, ca. 1811.

90. Garrett, At Home, pp. 52, 121–23; Nylander, Snug Fireside, pp. 31, 93; Percy Macquoid and Ralph Edwards, The Dictionary of English Furniture, 3 vols. (1924–1927; reprint 2d ed., Woodbridge, England: Baron Publishing for Barra Books, 1983), 1: 69.

91. Robbins Account Book, account with Taylor and Miller, January 8, 1834; Preston Ledger, 1795–1817, account with Jared Allen, August 20, 1804; H. Taylor Account Book, account with John Tucker, October 11, 1835; Douglas Account Book, account with Isaac Barnes, October 22, 1813; Evans Daybook, 1774–1782, account with Clement Biddle, May 27, 1776; William Webb Bill to Joseph G. Waters, Salem, Massachusetts, February 28, 1831, Waters Family Papers, PE.

92. John Hockaday Bill to St. George Tucker, Williamsburg, Virginia, April 13, 1811, Tucker-Coleman Collection, SL; Rea Daybook, 1789–1793, account with Stephen Codman, July 25,1793, and Daniel Rea, Jr., Daybook, Boston, 1794–1797, account with John Coffin Jones, October 12, 1794, BL (microfilm, DCM); Fenwick Lyell Account Book, Middletown, New Jersey, 1800–1813, account with John Hilliker, December 6, 1807, MHA; Cheney Daybook, 1802–1807, account with Moses Seymour, Jr., November 28, 1804; A. Taylor Account Book, account with Oliver Ives, September 14, 1816.

93. Crage Ledger, account with Nathaniel Tolman, May 9, 1759; Peter Emerson Daybook, Reading, Massachusetts, 1749–1759, account with Joseph Smith, March 2, 1756, Boston Public Library, Boston, Massachusetts; S. Hall Ledger, account with Joseph Blake, October 31, 1769; Low Account Book, account with William Bennett, December 11, 1816; Perez Austin Account Book, Canterbury, Connecticut, 1811–1832, account with Joseph Safford, March 6, 1832, CHS; Isaiah Tiffany Account Book, Norwich, Connecticut, 1746–1767, account with Urian Hosmer, January–May 1755, CHS.

94. Crage Ledger, account with Asa Baldwin, January 1759.

95. Fussell Account Book, accounts with John Knowles, Jr., May 25, 1744, Jacob Durbrow, November 16, 1738, Jeremiah Elfreth, February 12, 1742, John Naylor, May 8, 1744, and Thomas Robinson, August 10, 1742.

96. Fussell Account Book, accounts with Robert Wood, February 6, 1740, and Benjamin Franklin, January 24, 1744; Samuel Durand Daybook, Milford, Connecticut, 1806–1838, account with Davis Smith, Jr., January 24, 1815, Milford Historical Society, Milford, Connecticut (hereafter cited MiHS).

97. Robbins Account Book, account with Dr. Kissum, March 29, 1834.

98. Moore Account Book, account with Erastus Holcomb, May 26, 1820; Barnes Account Book, account with William Scranton, April 16, 1822; Tiffany Account Book, account with Nathaniel Backus, Jr., August 2, 1758.

99. Jenkins Daybook, account with George Perkins, December 15, 1837; Griswold Account Book, account with Horace Wells, May 25, 1817; Alling Ledger, account with S. S. Morris, January 25, 1839; Wilder Daybook and Ledger, account with Capt. Luke Cram, January 7, 1851; Cheney Daybook, 1802–1807, account with Moses Seymour, Jr., July 24, 1805; Crage Ledger, account with Jonathan Pudney, March 14, 1758; S. Hall Ledger, account with Joseph Willcocks, November 23, 1789.

100. Holmes Ledger, accounts with Alford Worthington, October 15, 1826, and Stephen W. Starkey, December 16, 1826; S. Hall Ledger, account with Giles Goodrich, February 27, 1781; Timothy Loomis Account Book, Windsor, Connecticut, 1768–1804, account with Simeon Loomis, January 1771, CHS; A. Taylor Account Book, account with Robert M. Ashley, April 1817; Cole Account Book, account with Dr. Harris Reed, August 2, 1804.

101. Mahogany cradle in Robbins Account Book, account with E. B. Stedman, June 13, 1835; cedar cradle in Elijah and Jacob Sanderson Bill to Nathan Reed, Salem, Massachusetts, May 2, 1798, Papers of Nathan Reed, PE. Kettell Account Book, account with Capt. Richard S. Noyes, July 1790; Evans Daybook, 1774–1782, account with Benjamin Saixes, December 6, 1781. Walnut cradles in Overholt Account Book, account with Daniel Kraut, January 20, 1801, in Keyser et al., Accounts, p.12, and George Claypoole Bill to Samuel Meredith, Philadelphia, April–October 1773, Clymer-Meredith-Read Papers, NYPL; cherrywood cradles in Danforth Ledger, account with Holcroyd and Tillinghast, May 18, 1804, and Samuel Silliman Account Book, New York state and Connecticut, 1804–1807, account with shop (Duanesburg, New York), December 1804, NYSHA, and David Evans Daybook, Philadelphia, 1796–1812, account with Joseph Shea, March 27, 1798, HSP.

102. Stained whitewood cradle in Holmes Daybook, account with Russell H. Post, September 10, 1827; painted pine cradle in Ross Account Book, account with John Fitz, November 3, 1792; red cradle and blue cradle in Cole Account Book, accounts with Howell Holmes, June 9, 1804, and Roger Holister, August 8, 1800; other blue cradles in Jacob Merrill, Jr., Ledger, Plymouth, New Hampshire, 1784–1812, account with Samuel Derbon, October 18, 1803, New Hampshire Historical Society, Concord, New Hampshire, as transcribed in Parsons, “New Hampshire Notes,” and Amos Denison Allen Memorandum Book, Windham, Connecticut, 1796–1803, account with Col. Swift, November 18, 1799, CHS. William Gray Ledger, Salem, Massachusetts, 1774–1814, account with John Chipman, June 8, 1794, PE; Daniel Rea, Jr., Daybook, Boston, 1778–1789, account with Thomas Wells, March 18, 1785, and Ledger, Boston, 1764–1799, account with Thomas Clement, May 31, 1771, and Ledger, Boston, 1789–1797, account with Campbell and Ward, December 1, 1792, BL (microfilm, DCM); Low Account Book, account with John Lloyd, April 7, 1797; Lemuel Tobey Daybook, Dartmouth, Massachusetts, 1773–1777, account with Silas Swift, October 22, 1774, OSV.

103. Garrett, At Home, p. 122; Nylander, Snug Fireside, p. 31.

104. Holmes Daybook, accounts with Capt. Champlin, July 25, 1825, and Russell Doane, April 6, 1829 (double crib); Danforth Ledger, account with Samuel Ames, June 15, 1807; Rea Daybook, 1789–1793, accounts with Dr. Bulfinch, April 28, 1790, and Cabot Clay, August 16, 1791; Barnes Account Book, account with William B. Ward, August 12, 1823; Robbins Account Book, account with Charles Goodwin, April 4, 1835.

105. A. Taylor Account Book, account with Dr. Hubbard Bartlett, October 9, 1812; Randle Holme, Academie or Store-House of Armory & Blazon (1688), as quoted in Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “cricket.”

106. Wooden-top stool in Currier Account Book, account with Moses Prescott, January 1822; open-frame stool in Holmes Daybook, account with Miss Hotchkiss, May 1, 1826; carpet-covered stools in Holmes Daybook, account with Sidney Morgan, September 1, 1825, and Robbins Account Book, account with Wildman and Hamilton, July 24, 1834; oval-top stool in Lyell Account Book, account with John J. Post, February 27, 1808; painted stools in Daniel Rea, Jr., Daybook, Boston, 1789–1802, account with Arnold Wells, October 12, 1801, BL (microfilm, DCM), and Filer Account Book, account with Benjamin Wright, October 10, 1809; varnished stool in Holmes Ledger, account with Charles Conklin, March 1826; maple or mahogany stools in Boynton Ledger, 1810–1817, account with William Leverett, April 28, 1817, and Holmes Daybook, account with Charles E. Fisk, February 7, 1828.

107. Turned legs in Pote Account Book, account with Nathaniel Elsworth, December 8, 1824, and Currier Account Book, account with Peter Jenness, November 1834. Robbins Account Book, account with Charles Brainard, June 17, 1835.

108. John Gaines II Account Book, Ipswich, Massachusetts, 1712–1749, account with Phillip Fowler, July 29, 1718, DCM; J. E. Townsend Account Book, account with Mrs. Kindel, January 26, 1816. Crickets in use by a child and a mother with baby are illustrated in Nylander, Snug Fireside, p. 175; other crickets in use are illustrated in Garrett, At Home, pp. 63, 72.

109. John G. Hopkins Bill to Albert C. Greene, Providence, Rhode Island, September 1834–December 1835, Greene Collection; Lyell Account Book, account with John J. Post, November 16, 1808; George Merrifield Account Book, Albany, New York, 1831–1847, account with Mr. Kelso, March 11, 1837, DCM; H. Moricet Bill to Arthur Bronson, New York, May– August 1836, Bronson Family Papers, NYPL.

110. Corner cupboard in Mount Ledger, account with Samuel J. Lewis, April 1, 1837. Preston Ledger, 1795–1817, account with Billious Cook, December 9, 1805; Enos Reynolds Daybook, Boxford, Massachusetts, 1793–1840, account with Samuel Heath, September 18, 1810, PE; Whitelaw Ledger, account with James Whitelaw, October 24, 1805.

111. Jonathan C. Loomis Account Book, Whately, Massachusetts, 1808–1828, account with Capt. Lucius Graves, March 29, 1815, DCM; William Savery Bill to John Cadwalader, August 1770–March 1771.

112. William Rowell Account Book, Amesbury, Massachusetts, 1832–1852, account with John T. Stickney, May 16, 1839, OSV; P. Austin Account Book, account with Walter Eaton, February 1831.

113. Unidentified Cabinetmaker’s Ledger, probably Salem, Massachusetts, 1824–1840, account with Samuel Chamberlain and Son, February–April 1832, PE; Barnes Account Book, account with Thomas McDonough, September 30, 1822.

114. Mount Ledger, account with Samuel J. Lewis, February 22, 1837; Jenkins Daybook, account with Capt. Ivory Lord, October 9, 1838; William Hook Bill to Benjamin H. Hathorne, Salem, Massachusetts, June 1812, Ward Family Manuscripts; Thomas Boynton Ledger, Windsor, Vermont, 1817–1847, account with Horace Everett, February 13, 1841, DC; Kinsman Bill to Brown, January 1763–July 1768.

115. I. Ashton Account Book, account with Mr. Fernant, January 7, 1792; Danforth Ledger, account with Rufus Waterman, March 15, 1791; Peter Oldershaw Bill to Walter Livingston, New York, December 3, 1791, Robert R. Livingston Papers, NYHS.

116. Preston Ledger, 1811–1842, account with Phineas Stevens, October 3, 1816; Holmes Daybook, accounts with Gamaliel Conklin, March 27, 1829; James Gere Ledger, Groton, Connecticut, 1822–1852, account with Mrs. Nancy Barnes, September 30, 1831, CSL.

117. Holmes Ledger, accounts with Jabez Southmayd (?), January 28, 1826 (pine), and Russell Doane, October 24, 1828 (butternut); Overholt Account Book, accounts with Carl Zelner, March 17, 1791 (yellow poplar), and Michael Walder, May 25, 1792 (walnut), in Keyser et al., Accounts, pp. 4, 6.

118. Holmes Ledger, account with Russell Doane, May 14, 1830; Barnes Account Book, account with Samuel Kirby, April 3, 1822; Moore Account Book, accounts with Silvy Clark, March 10, 1809, and Veranus St (?) , March 27, 1813.

119. Prussian blue in Rea Daybook, 1794–1797, account with Daniel Rea Tert[iarie]s (?), September 15, 1794. James Chase Account Book, Gilmanton, New Hampshire, 1807–1812, account with Ezekiel Rowe, February 13, 1809, as transcribed in Parsons, “New Hampshire Notes”; Allen Memorandum Book, account with Daniel Ladd, March 13, 1802; Overholt Account Book, accounts with Martin Oberholtzer, March 31, 1791, and Maria Sturd, March 28, 1797, in Keyser et al., Accounts, pp. 4, 10.

120. Preston Ledger, 1811–1842, account with Phineas Stevens, October 3, 1816.

121. Trumble advertisement in Pennsylvania Gazette.

122. Allen Memorandum Book, accounts with Gideon Hoxey, July 5, 1799, and Mr. Selden, November 15, 1799; Francis Account Book, account with Capt. Francis Bulkley, November 15, 1797.

123. Hawley Account Book, account with Thomas Rockwell, August 16, 1789; Short Account Book, accounts with Richard Drown, November 11, 1814, and Ebenezer Stedman, December 30, 1815, January 6 and 13, 1816.

124. Webster, Dictionary (1828), s.v. “trunk,” as quoted in Margaret B. Schiffer, Chester County, Pennsylvania, Inventories, 1684–1850 (Atglen, Pa.: Schiffer Publishing, 1974), p. 129; William Rhinelander Estate Inventory, New York, November 9, 1785, NYPL; Richard Booker Bill to St. George Tucker, Williamsburg, Virginia, 1777, Tucker-Coleman Collection; Hales Richardson Bill to Richard Blow, Norfolk, Virginia, October 25, 1794, Richard Blow Papers; Robbins Account Book, account with Thomas Day, July 3, 1835.

125. R. Loomis Account Book, account with Thaddeus Lyman, August 1816; Short Account Book, account with Charles Short, March 1, 1816; Daniel Davis, Mary Chamberlain, and William Melchoir Estate Inventories, 1754, 1752, and 1755, as quoted in Schiffer, Chester County Inventories, p. 118; Allen Memorandum Book, account with Charles Clark, June 22, 1802.

126. Charles Norris Cash Book, Philadelphia, 1760–1761, Norris Family Accounts, HSP; Baker Account Book, account with Dr. Knowles, March 13, 1788; Joseph Reynolds Estate Inventory, 1735, as quoted in Schiffer, Chester County Inventories, p. 121; William Denny Bill to Stewart Rowan, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, June 29, 1771, DCM; R. Loomis Account Book, account with Dr. G. Wilks Hanchet, 1808; Holmes Ledger, account with Jonah E. Latimer, May 1828.

127. Symonds Account Book, accounts with H. Higginson, February 3, 1750, and Mr. Hallack (?), February 18, 1756.

128. E. G. and A. Partridge Bill to Henry W. Miller, Worcester, Massachusetts, July– December 1829, DCM; Francis Account Book, account with Thomas Griswold, January 21, 1833; Barnes Account Book, account with Giles S. Cotton, August 6, 1821; Short Account Book, accounts with Frederick Strong, January 25, 1816, and Richard Drown, November 11, 1814; Schiffer, Chester County Inventories, p. 102; John Sager Daybook, Bordentown, New Jersey, 1805–1817, account with Samuel Clayton (?), October 10, 1805, HSP.

129. Nylander, Snug Fireside, pp. 106–7, 109–11; Filer Account Book, account with George Huntington, March 20, 1799.

130. P. Austin Account Book, account with Joseph Simms, March 26, 1820. Hat case in Ross Account Book, account with Richard Lakeman, November 24, 1788. Cheney Ledger, 1799–1817, account with Tapping Reeve, February 1, 1800; Rea Daybook, 1794–1797, account with Charles Smith, April 1, 1794; Overholt Account Book, account with Martin Oberholtzer, April 18, 1791, in Keyser et al., Accounts, p. 4.

131. Sewing box in William Crout Bill to Charles Wistar, probably Philadelphia, June 2, ca. 1830s, Charles Wister Papers, DCM; work box in Boynton Ledger, 1810–1817, account with William Leverett, October 6, 1815, and repairs in account with Thomas Leverett and Son, March 20, 1817; other repairs in Boynton Ledger, 1817–1847, account with Jonathan H. Hubbard, June 22, 1837; fancy box in Thomas Safford Ledger, Canterbury, Connecticut, 1807– 1835, account with James Burnap, September 27, 1810, CSL. Robbins Account Book, account with Joel Howes, February 1, 1834; Clark, “Diary of Edward Jenner Carpenter,” pp. 344, 348; Thomas Tufft Bill to Mrs. Mary Norris, Philadelphia, May 10, 1775, Norris Family Accounts, Gillingham Collection; Luke Houghton Ledger B, Barre, Massachusetts, 1824–1851, account with Charles Lee, June 5, 1831, Barre.

132. Holmes Ledger, account with Jonah E. Latimer, December 12, 1828; Howard Smith Account Book, New Haven, Connecticut, 1844–1849, account with Lewis A. Northrup, February 24, 1846, CHS; Potter Account Book, credit account with Edmund Townsend, April 18, 1775; J. W. Geer Account Book, account with George Palmer, January 12, 1779.

133. Sand boxes in Deland Account Book, account with Washington Walker, September 6, 1826, and O. Avery Account Book, account with Elias Hewitt, September 1816.

134. Gentleman’s Progress: The Itinerarium of Alexander Hamilton, 1744, edited by Carl Bridenbaugh (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1948), p. xvii; The New Democracy in America: Travels of Francisco de Miranda in the United States, 1783–84, translated by Judson P. Wood, edited by John S. Ezell (Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963), p. 6; Frances M. Trollope, Domestic Manners of the Americans, 2 vols. (London: Whittaker, Treacher, 1832), 1: 24; James Nixon, Personal Narratives of a Tour through a Part of the United States and Canada (New York, 1849), pp. 33–34, as quoted in Eleanore H. Gustafson, “Clues and Footnotes,” Antiques 114, no. 5 (November 1978): 958; Clark, “Diary of Edward Jenner Carpenter,” p. 349.

135. Barnes Account Book, account with Reuben ChaVee, June 11, 1822; Lyell Account Book, account with John J. Post, November 16, 1808; Cheney Daybook, 1813–1846, account with Grove Catlin, June 24, 1814; Deland Account Book, account with Ebenezer and George Merrium, June 25, 1834; Danforth Ledger, account with Gershom Jones, June 6, 1800; Church and Sweet Bill to Richard W. Greene, Providence, Rhode Island, May 1829–December 1831, Greene Collection; Evans Daybook, 1784–1806, account with Philadelphia County Commissioners (for the United States Congress), December 9, 1790.

136. E. Smith, Jr., Bill to Robert Rantoul, and Ebenezer Smith, Jr., Bill to Robert Rantoul, Beverly, Massachusetts, April 1811–July 1812, Papers of Robert Rantoul; Robbins Account Book, account with Capt. E. Flower, August 26, 1834.

137. Evans Daybook, 1784–1806, account with Dr. Bass, January 9, 1786; John Durand Account Book, Milford, Connecticut, 1760–1783, account with Dr. Charles Carinton, February 11, 1775, MiHS; Jenkins Daybook, account with Dr. Burleigh Smart, December 22, 1836; Silliman Account Book, account with Dr. Richard Ely (probably East Haddam, Connecticut), May 20, 1807; Rea Daybook, 1789–1793, account with Dr. William Jackson, January 30, 1792.

138. Rea Daybook, 1789–1793, account with William Williams, July 27, 1790; Barnes Account Book, account with Sage and Russell, August 12, 1824; Holmes Daybook, account with C. U. Hayden, July 1826; Short Account Book, account with Thomas H. Balch, August 27, 1814.

139. Kettell Account Book, accounts with Joshua Greenleaf, May 1791 (pair) and February 14, 1792 (set).

140. O. Avery Account Book, account with Randall Wells, June 20, 1809; Ross Account Book, accounts with Thomas Ross, December 1803–January 1804 (cherry, maple, mahogany) and Aaron Smith. October 28, 1799 (with nose); J. E. Townsend Account Book and Ledger, account with John Bass, January 13, 1783; Pells and Company Bill to Arthur Bronson, New York, April 11, 1837, Bronson Family Papers.

141. Baker Account Book, account with William Potter, August 26, 1791; I. Ashton Account Book, account with Cornell Wiles, December 20, 1791; Jenkins Daybook, account with Joseph Dane, July 6, 1838; Holmes Ledger, account with Samuel Ingham, June 30, 1828.

142. Barnes Account Book, accounts with Jonathan Barnes, December 18, 1822, Dr. Charles Dyer, May 21, 1823, and Thomas McDonough, December 18, 1822. Framed board in James Linacre Bill to Mr. Elmendorf, Albany, New York, December 8, 1806, Sanders Papers; open frame in Rowell Account Book, account with Moses Goodrich, June 22, 1840. Catherine Beecher, A Treatise on Domestic Economy (Boston: Marsh, Capen, Lyon, and Webb, 1841), p. 349, as quoted in Nylander, Snug Fireside, p. 127.

143. Boynton Ledger, 1810–1817, accounts with Frederick Pettes, October 8, 1813, and Alden Spooner, August 9, 1813, and Ledger, 1817–1847, account with Mrs. Sarah Townsend, August 29, 1817; Holcomb Account Book, account with V. P. Van Renssalear, June 22, 1822; A. Taylor Account Book, account with Jenner Foot, December 13, 1815; Rebecca Williamson Bill to Robert L. Livingston, New York, July 21, 1832, Livingston Papers.

144. Oliver Wickes Bill to William Arnold, East Greenwich, Rhode Island, December 1799–February 1804, Greene Collection; Book of the Household, 2 vols. (London: London Printing and Publishing Company, ca. 1870), 2: 551, as quoted in Donald L. Fennimore, Metalwork in Early America (Winterthur, Del.: Winterthur Museum, 1996), p. 175; see also pp. 176–79 for turned wooden handles. Handle repair in J. Durand Account Book, account with Samuel Sanford, September 23, 1762.

145. Garrett, At Home, pp. 190–91, 214.

146. Henry A. Guardinien Bill and Peter M. Hench Bill to Catherine Gansevoort, Albany, New York, April 7, 1827, and March 14, 1816, Papers of Catherine Gansevoort, Gansevoort-Lansing Collection; theater notice in New-York Gazette Revived in the Weekly Post-Boy, November 19, 1750, as quoted in Gottesman, Arts and Crafts, p. 122.

147. Lyell Account Book, account with William Popham, December 3, 1806; Silas Ellis Cheney Ledger, Litchfield, Connecticut, 1816–1822, account with James Winship, January 2, 1821, LHS; Samuel Fithian Ware Account Book, Lower Township, Cape May County, New Jersey, 1826–1849, account with James R. Hughes, November 14, 1830, DCM.

148. William H. Reed Account Book, Hampden, Maine, 1803–1848, account with Jedediah Merrick, May 17, 1808, DCM; Moyers and Rich Account Book, credit account with E. M. D. Reed, July 12, 1837; Cheney Ledger, 1799–1817, account with Dan Huntington, October 1801, and daybook, 1802–1807, account with Amos Doolittle, July 9, 1806; Pote Account Book, account with James Mountfort, May 7, 1828; K. H. Shaw Bill to Joseph G. Waters, Salem, Massachusetts, March 31, 1825, Waters Family Papers; Lee Ledger, account with Harvey Dresser, April 1822.

149. Holmes Ledger, account with Asa P. Williams, July 1826, and Daybook, account with Heman Starkey, October 15, 1827; Barker Account Book, 1750–1772, account with Samuel Maye, November 4, 1763; Samuel Abell Bill to St. George Tucker, probably Williamsburg, Virginia, August 9, 1791, Tucker Coleman Collection. Gilding and painting in Boynton Ledger, 1817–1847, accounts with Joseph Flood, June 1, 1825, and Dr. E. E. Phelps, December 2, 1840; bronzing, painting, and veneering in Robbins Account Book, accounts with Ludlow and Oakley, August 19, 1834, and Mr. Sperry, October 28, 1835. Jenkins Daybook, account with Capt. Edmand Wise, December 16, 1837; Clark, “Diary of Edward Jenner Carpenter,” p. 351.

150. Holmes Ledger, account with Samuel C. Burt, February 9, 1830; Kettell Account Book, account with Edward Bass, November 2, 1784; Cornelius Roosevelt Bill to William Beekman, New York, July–August 1795, White-Beekman Papers, NYHS; Gavit Bill to Orne, May–June 1763.

151. Oak in Robbins Account Book, account with Dr. Barry, February 20, 1835; mahogany in Holmes Daybook, account with Calvin Williams, January 13, 1826, and Isaac Wright Account Book, Hartford, Connecticut, 1834–1837, account with Winship and Work, February 1, 1834, CSL. B. A. Norton and Company Bill to Samuel Larned, Providence, Rhode Island, January–June 1844, Greene Collection; Matthew Marshall Bill to Arthur Bronson, New York, December 29, 1836, Bronson Family Papers; Barnes Account Book, account with John L. Lewis, August 17, 1821; D. and S. Proud Daybook and Ledger, account with Phillip Lewis, July 11, 1828; J. E. Townsend Account Book and Ledger, account with Henry Barber, January 11, 1793.

152. Danforth Ledger, accounts with Jabez Bowen, August 17, 1801, and Thomas Jackson, August 18, 1801; Robbins Account Book, account with Charles H. Dickinson, May 23, 1834.

153. Map framing discussed in E. McSherry Fowble, Two Centuries of Prints in America, 1680–1880 (Charlottesville, Va.: University Press of Virginia for the Winterthur Museum, 1987), pp. 22–23. Holmes Daybook, account with Richard Hayden, September 26, 1827; Boynton Ledger, 1810–1817, account with Curtis and Coolidge, September 6, 1813; William G. Beesley Daybook, Salem, New Jersey, 1828–1836, account with William Carpenter, February 16, 1829, Salem County Historical Society, Salem, New Jersey.

154. J. E. Townsend Ledger, account with Joshua Crandel, August 7, 1794; Holmes Ledger, account with Asa P. Williams, July 1826.

155. Map sticks in Cheney Daybook, 1813–1846, account with Orman Marsh, May 15, 1817. Griswold Daybook, account with Joseph Allen, April 8, 1820; Preston Ledger, 1795–1817, account with Nicholas Jones, December 30, 1803.

156. Nathan Topping Cook Account Book, Bridgehampton, New York, 1792–1823, account with Samuel Brown, February 1806, DCM; Nathaniel Sterling Account book, Wilton, Connecticut, 1801–1809, account with Ebenezer Bennett, January 22, 1803, CHS.

157. J. Gere Ledger, 1822–1852, account with William A. Walker, April 28, 1834; Boynton Ledger, 1810–1817, accounts with Lemuel Hedge, March 16, 1812 (4 1/2¢ profile frames), and Benjamin Tuells, November 22, 1815 (profile machine lent), and Ledger, 1817–1847, account with Lyman Cowdry, May 4, 1834.

158. Barnes Account Book, account with Joel Jacobs, January 23, 1824; Holmes Ledger, account with David Williams 2nd, April 1827; Danforth Ledger, accounts with Samuel Clark, August 5, 1799, and Stephen Abbott, August 9, 1799; Stephanus Knight Account Book, Enfield, Connecticut, 1795–1809, account with Nehemiah Pruddan, April 7, 1803, CHS.

159. Daniel Rea, Jr., Daybook, Boston, 1772–1800, account with Thomas Brattle, January 28, 1773, BL (microfilm, DCM), and Daybook, 1789–1793, account with Joseph Callender, February 23, 1791; Jenkins Daybook, account with William Adams, February 1, 1838; Pote Account Book, account with George Clark, November 29, 1824.

160. Boynton Ledger, 1817–1847, account with Simeon Ide, April 17, 1822; Thomas Jefferson Account Book, eastern United States, 1783–1790, account with Thomas Affleck, Philadelphia, January 14, 1783, Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston (hereafter cited MHS).

161. The popularity of backgammon in Virginia is discussed in Jane Carson, Colonial Virginians at Play, Williamsburg Research Studies (Williamsburg, Va.: Colonial Williamsburg, 1965), pp. 75–76. D. and S. Proud Ledger, account with Jonathan W. Coy, August 30, 1780; Pote Account Book, account with Pearson Little and Robertson, November 25, 1826; Boynton Ledger, 1817–1847, account with Dr. Daniel Jenison, December 25, 1818; Silliman Account Book, account of shop work, January 1805; Clark, “Diary of Edward Jenner Carpenter,” p. 378; Account of Disbursements for Sloop Fame, Newport, Rhode Island, 1799, account with Stephen Goddard, Wetmore Papers, MHS.

162. J. Townsend, Jr., Ledger, account with James Sisson, March 26, 1770; J. E. Townsend Account Book and Ledger, account with John Goddard, September 29, 1779.

163. Carson, Colonial Virginians at Play, pp. 190–92; Boynton Ledger, 1810–1817, accounts with Benjamin S. Pilsbury, December 24, 1813, and Curtis and Coolidge, November 6, 1814; Danforth Ledger, account with Charles Holden, January 6, 1792; Thomas Tufft Bill to Mrs. Mary Norris, Philadelphia, 1775 or later, Norris Family Accounts, Gillingham Collection.

164. Beckwith Ledger, account with Isaac Geer, January 23, 1806; William Savery Bill to Joseph Pemberton, Philadelphia, January 1774–November 1775, Pemberton Papers, HSP; Thomas Osborn Receipt Book, New York, 1823–1846, receipt of Thomas Timpson, July 28, 1828, NYPL.

165. The sport of bowling is discussed in Carson, Colonial Virginians at Play, pp. 171–80. Carson also illustrates an unidentified European (probably Dutch) print dating to the late seventeenth or early eighteenth century that shows a game of ninepins in progress outside an inn. The pins are arranged in three rows. Wilder Daybook and Ledger, account with Joseph A. Spear, June 4, 1838; Whitelaw Ledger, account with Samuel Clough, Jr., May 4, 1808.

166. Catherine Dike, Walking Sticks, Shire Album 256 (Haverfordwest, Wales: C. I. Thomas and Sons for Shire Publications, 1990), pp. 3–6; Whitelaw Ledger, account with Robert Scott, September 5, 1811; Trumble Advertisement; D. and S. Proud Ledger, accounts with Calvin Dean, June 16, 1815, and Christopher Whipple, January 5, 1782 (with ferrel); Holcomb Account Book, account with Eliakim How, December 1, 1815.

167. Bill of John Shaw and Archibald Chisholm to James Brice, Annapolis, Maryland, November 1772–May 1775, Brice-Jennings Papers, Maryland Historical Society, Baltimore; Cheney Daybook, 1807–1813, account with Isaac Baldwin, July 26, 1809; Rea Daybook, 1789–1793, account with John Codman, March 10, 1792.

168. Joseph and John Needles Bills to Stephen Girard, Philadelphia, September 5, 1826, and March 5, 1826, Girard Papers; Carson, Colonial Virginians at Play, p. 101; Daniel Trotter Bill to John Girard, Philadelphia, November 1787–February 1788, Girard Papers; Garrett, At Home, pp. 73, 106.

169. Jacobs Bird-House Company, Seventh Annual Birdhouse Booklet (Waynesburg, Pa.: Jacobs Bird-House Co., 1915); Joseph H. Dodson, Your Bird Friends and How to Win Them (Kankakee, Ill.: Joseph H. Dodson, 1917); Boynton Ledger, 1810–1817, account with Horace Everett, April 19, 1817; Knight Account Book, account with Ephraim P. Potter, April 8, 1801; Ranck Account Book, account with Martin Meily, ca. 1798, in Keyser et al., Accounts, p. 209; Samuel Cheever Bill to Elias Hasket Derby, Salem, Massachusetts, January 1792–October 1793, Derby Papers; Baker Account Book, account with Jacob Rodrigues Rivera, May 20, 1785.

170. Nunes, Hyde de Neuville, pp. 16, 17, 33; Daniel Bixby Account Book, Francestown, New Hampshire, 1839–1849, unidentified account, November 1840, DCM; Bachman Daybook, account with Elizabeth Houser, April 7, 1828; L. Houghton Ledger A, account with Seth Lee, May 28, 1821; Benjamin Daybook and Ledger, account with George A. Starkweather, May 26, 1828; Thomas Tufft Bill to Mrs. Mary Norris, Philadelphia, June 2, 1775, Norris Family Accounts, Gillingham Collection.

171. Barnes Account Book, accounts with Selden and Hurd, May 4, 1824, and William Williams, October 3, 1822; Gray Ledger, account with Dr. Edward A. Holyoke, July 8, 1793; Rea Daybook, 1789–1793, account with Dr. Bulfinch, April 28, 1790; Boynton Ledger, 1817–1847, account with Capt. David Smith, January 1, 1823.

172. Merrifield Account Book, account with H. B. Haswell, November 19,1840; Barnes Account Book, account with William Williams, November 1, 1824; Hopkins Bill to Greene, September 1834–December 1835.

173. Mehargue Ledger, credit account with John Barry, June 11, 1844; Bastian Account Book, account with George Remley, July 18, 1825; Isaac H. Madera Bill to James Skerrett, Philadelphia, March 18, 1833, Papers of James J. Skerrett, Loudoun Papers, HSP; Boynton Ledger, 1810–1817, account with Alden Spooner, August 9, 1813.

174. Robert Mullen Bill to Stephen Collins, Philadelphia, November 1789, Collins Papers; J. Durand Account Book, account with Samuel Sanford, May 15, 1766; Cheney Daybook, 1807–1813, account with Abraham Knowlton, September 15, 1809.

175. Cheney Ledger, 1799–1817, accounts with Caleb Bacon, April 24, 1800, and Oliver Wolcott, December 29, 1801; Knight Account Book, account with Stephen Root, May 17, 1807; Danforth Ledger, account with Timothy Gladding, June 28, 1804.

176. Cheney Daybook, 1802–1807, account with Ebenezer Boles, April 1803; Boynton Ledger, 1817–1847, accounts with Edward R. Campbell, August 1, 1822, and Samuel Patrick, April 7, 1841.

177. Gray Ledger, account with Capt. Josiah Batchelder, Jr., May 1777; Cheney Daybook, 1807–1813, credit account with Charles T. West, March 5, 1812.