1. Wachovia administrator Frederic William Marshall used the term “English Fabrique” in his January 1, 1774, report to the Aeltesten Conferenz; Bradford L. Rauschenberg, “Escape from Bartlam: The History of William Ellis of Hanley,” Journal of Early Southern Decorative Arts 17, no. 2 (November 1991): 86. The earliest use of the term bottle to describe a Moravian press-molded figural form—“40 fish @ 1/4. 250 @ 1/ . 36 little bottles @ 6d . . . 16.1.4”—is in the inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1806, translated and transcribed under Pottery Inventories, Old Salem Research Files (hereafter OSRF), Museum of Early Southern Decorative Arts (hereafter MESDA), Winston-Salem, North Carolina. The original pottery inventories, most of which are in German, are in the Moravian Archives, Southern Province (hereafter MASP), Winston-Salem. The “little bottles” were clearly fish, since they were included on the same line and valued the same as the smallest fish bottles in the inventory of April 30, 1803, which itemizes “64 fish @ 1/4. 190 @ 1/. 136 @ 6d . . . 17.3.4. The term bottle as an identifier of press-molded figures is rare on pottery inventories before that of April 30, 1819. 2. For more on Gottfried Aust’s early years at Bethabara, see John Bivins Jr., The Moravian Potters in North Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina for Old Salem, Inc., 1972), pp. 16–17. 3. Ibid., pp. 18–20. The “Memorabilia of Outside AVairs” is part of the annual diary kept at Bethabara. 4. See Alain Outlaw, “The Mount Shepherd Pottery Site, Randolph County, North Carolina,” figs. 74 and 75, in this volume. 5. “Account of a Stove Bought 1782 & never received from Salem,” MS receipt in Bills Receipts and Vouchers P611: folder 1790–1793, MASP. According to a note on the receipt, Moore had requested that the stove be delivered to Hillsborough; however, in 1791 it was still “at the earthen factory,” paid for but unclaimed. A Stephen Moore of Orange County was a Revolutionary War hero who ultimately settled in Person County (not far from Hills­borough) after the war. It is possible that uncertainties caused by the war delayed or prevented the delivery of the stove. 6. In 1823 Gottleib Byham paid to install an unglazed tile stove and apply blacking; receipt to Gottleib Byham, 1823, Bills Receipts and Vouchers P611, folder 1823, MASP. The original receipt, which is in German, is incomplete. The amount paid and the issuer of the receipt are unclear. 7. Bivins, Moravian Potters in North Carolina, pp. 174–76. 8. Rauschenberg, “Escape from Bartlam,” pp. 84–86. 9. As quoted in ibid., p. 88. 10. “Inventory of the things and tools in the Pottery, by Gottfried Aust in Salem, which had occur[r]ed new in March 1780,” Pottery Inventories, OSRF. 11. For speculation that Christ carved molds, see Bivins, Moravian Potters in North Carolina, p. 32; and Stanley A. South, Historical Archaeology in Wachovia: Excavating Eighteenth-Century Bethabara and Moravian Pottery (New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 1999), pp. 279–80, 299. 12. As quoted in Rauschenberg, “Escape from Bartlam,” pp. 91–92. 13. This dispute and its resolution are discussed in Bivins, Moravian Potters in North Carolina, pp. 33–34. 14. See “Inventory of the things and tools in the Pottery, by Gottfried Aust in Salem, which had occur[r]ed new in March 1780” and “The Pottery in Salem, Supplies, Tools & Equipment, November 27, 1788,” Pottery Inventories, OSRF. Stoves with several diVerent tile patterns ­survive. 15. “Finished pottery ware that Rudolph Christ brought to the Salem Pottery from Bethabara as well as what was in the pottery here and also what material and tools and equipment was here on 1st February 1789,” Pottery Inventories, OSRF. 16. Ibid. The mold is illustrated in this volume in Robert Hunter, “StaVordshire Ceramics in Wachovia” fig. 31, and Luke Beckerdite and Johanna Brown, “Eighteenth-Century Earthen­ware from North Carolina: The Moravian Tradition Reconsidered,” figs. 51, 52. 17. Payment for the pipe mold is documented in “Jacob Lash agreement with Samuel Stoz, 7 May 1787”; MS receipt in Bills Receipts and Vouchers P611: folder 1787–1789, MASP. 18. The first reference to Eisenberg by name is in the “Outlay of the Pottery 1793,” transcribed and filed under Pottery Inventories, OSRF. He received £15 for board and “a month’s wages.” Other expenses enumerated in the same document include £12.2 for “hauling stones for the kiln,” £9.4.6 for 4,100 bricks, £1.7.1Q÷@ for 325 large bricks, £1.8 for 400 feet of boards, £14.8 for a roof and shed, and £5.3.4 for masonry work. 19. See Hunter, “StaVordshire Ceramics in Wachovia,” fig. 42, and Beckerdite and Brown, “Eighteenth-Century Earthenware from North Carolina,” fig. 60. 20. Frederic William Marshall, “Report to the Unity Elder’s Conference, 1793,” in Adelaide L. Fries, Records of the Moravians in North Carolina, 11 vols. (Raleigh, N.C.: Edwards & Broughton Print Co., 1922–1969), 6:2484. These volumes were compiled, partially translated, and edited by the archivist of the Southern Province of the Moravian Church. Two more volumes, edited by C. Daniel Crews and Lisa D. Bailey, were added in 2000 and 2006. 21. See the entry for April 30, 1793, in “Salem Diacony Journal A 1772–1800,” MASP. 22. For more on the British settlement of the piedmont region, see James Graham Leyburn, The Scotch-Irish: A Social History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1962); H. Tyler Blethen and Curtis W. Wood Jr., From Ulster to Carolina: The Migration of the Scotch-Irish to Southwestern North Carolina, rev. ed. (Raleigh: North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources, 1998); Duane Gilbert Meyer, The Highland Scots of North Carolina, 1732–1776 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961); Francis Charles Anscombe, I Have Called You Friends: The Story of Quakerism in North Carolina (Boston: Christopher Publishing House, 1959); Seth B. Hinshaw, The Carolina Quaker Experience, 1665–1985: An Interpretation (Davidson, N.C.: Briarpatch Press, 1984). For more on the German settlement in the piedmont, see G. D. Bernheim, History of the German Settlements and of the Lutheran Church in North and South Carolina . . . (1872; repr., Balti­more: Regional Publishing, 1975); History of the Lutheran Church in North Carolina, 1803–1953, edited by Jacob L. Morgan, Bachman S. Brown, and John Hall ([S.I.]: United Evangelical Lutheran Synod of North Carolina, 1953); Daniel B. Thorp, The Moravian Community in Colonial North Carolina: Pluralism on the Southern Frontier (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1989); C. Daniel Crews, Villages of the Lord: The Moravians Come to Carolina (Winston-Salem, N.C.: Moravian Archives, 1995); C. Daniel Crews, My Name Shall Be There: The Founding of Salem (with Friedberg, Friedland) (Winston-Salem, N.C.: Moravian Archives, 1995); The Autobiography and Chronological Life of Reverend Paul Henkel (1754–1825), edited by Melvin Miller et al. (Harrisonburg, Va.: Campbell Copy Center, 2002); S. Scott Rohrer, Hope’s Promise: Religion and Acculturation in the Southern Backcountry (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2005). 23. For more information on the consumer revolution, see Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century, edited by Cary Carson, Ronald HoVman, and Peter J. Albert (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia for the United States Capitol Historical Society, 1994); and T. H. Breen, The Marketplace of Revolution: How Consumer Politics Shaped American Independence (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004). 24. Minutes of the Aufseher Collegium, June 13, 1780, transcribed and filed under Personnel and Subjects, OSRF. 25. An inventory is not necessarily representative of what the pottery had on hand throughout the year. Some pieces might have been manufactured seasonally, with quantities declining in the spring. Several inventories mention tile molds, for example, but the only inventory references to ceramic tiles or stoves during Christ’s tenure as master of the Salem pottery are outstanding debts for previously installed stoves, or “ovens” as the Moravians called them. The pottery inventories for 1780 and 1781 include an outstanding debt for a stove installed in the “English Schoolhouse in Hope.” Because stoves were expensive commissioned objects, there would have been no reason to maintain a stockpile of finished tiles. 26. Inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1804, OSRF. Orange County Records, vol. 14, Inventories and Accounts of Sales, 1800–1808, edited by William Doub Bennett, 18 vols. (Raleigh, N.C.: Privately published, 1995), p. 86. 27. Inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1796, OSRF. 28. Inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1800, OSRF. 29. File R: 701, MASP; see page 113 herein. 30. Minutes of the Aufseher Collegium, May 29, 1826; May 12, 1828; and June 16, 1828, OSRF. 31. The Wachovia Historical Society (hereafter cited WHS) collection is maintained and administered by Old Salem Museums & Gardens. Accession records maintained by the WHS occasionally list sources. 32. Both sections of the mold for the small turtle bottle appear to have been cast from a live turtle, whereas only the bottom section of the other mold was taken from life. 33. Susan C. Power, Early Art of the Southeastern Indians: Feathered Serpents & Winged Beings (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004), pp. 177–79, 191; Eugene Garfield, “The Turtle: A Most Ancient Mystery. Part 1. Its Role in Art, Literature, and Mythology,” Current Com­ments 39 (September 29, 1986): 3–7, available online at www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/essays/ v9p293y1986.pdf (accessed August 15, 2009). 34. For variations of these myths, see David Adams Leeming and Jake Page, The Mythology of Native North America (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998); and www.firstpeople.us/ FP-Html-Legends/Legends-AB.html. 35. Leeming and Page, Mythology of Native North America. 36. John A. Burrison, Brothers in Clay: The Story of Georgia Folk Pottery (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1983), pp. 108–10. 37. Ibid. 38. Ibid. 39. Thomas John Blumer, Catawba Indian Pottery: The Survival of a Folk Tradition (Tusca­loosa: University of Alabama Press, 2004), p. 7. 40. Telephone conversation between the author and Thomas John Blumer, November 11, 2008. Although Blumer has not identified any eighteenth- or early-nineteenth-century turtle eYgies, and I have been unsuccessful in locating any pre-nineteenth-century examples in museum collections, in a conversation I had with Blumer on November 11, 2008, he agreed that the Catawba making the eYgies in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were probably imitating a traditional art rather than inventing a new form. Blumer expresses his opinion that turtle eYgy pipes made in the late nineteenth century were probably inspired by traditional examples made much earlier but of which there are no extant examples. Blumer, Catawba Indian Pottery, pp. 182–83. For a turtle effigy vessel dating ca. 1200–1400, see Power, Early Art of the Southeastern Indians, p. 179. 41. Inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1800, OSRF. For the term terrapin, see the inventory for April 30, 1806. 42. Inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1808, OSRF. 43. Inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1806 (quoted in Burrison, Brothers in Clay, pp. 108–10). 44. Ibid. 45. Ibid. 46. Ibid. 47. Inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1810, OSRF. Bear baiting was a rather gruesome sport, popular for centuries, in which a bear was chained and dogs were released to attack it. 48. The following October, the Bethabara community decided to kill ten of its pigs because they were expensive to feed and often fell prey to “wild-cats . . . foxes . . . wolves . . . and bears”; Fries, Records of the Moravians, 1:128, 139. 49. Inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1808, and April 30, 1810, OSRF. 50. Inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1801, 1802, and 1806, OSRF. 51. Handwritten note that came with a fish bottle (acc. no. 5328) when it was purchased for the Toy Museum at Old Salem Museums & Gardens in 2007. 52. Sumpter T. Priddy, American Fancy: Exuberance in the Arts, 1790–1840 (Milwaukee, Wis.: Chipstone Foundation, 2004), pp. xxv, 183. 53. Inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1806, OSRF. 54. The Moravians sent pastor John Antes to Egypt in 1770. This effort proved to be unsuccessful for the spread of the Gospel and quite traumatic for Antes, who was tortured by followers of Ottoman offcial Osman Bey in 1779. Antes returned to Europe by 1782. Although he composed several pieces of music while in Egypt, nothing is known of his impressions of the arts or culture of the region. For more on Antes, see www.dramonline.org/albums/john-antes-string-trios-and-johann-friedric-peter-string-quintets/notes (accessed August 12, 2009). In contrast, Napoleon’s Egpytian campaign of the late eighteenth century captured the imagination of the world. While the mysteries of Egypt had fascinated the West for centuries, Baron Dominique Vivant Denon’s Voyage dans la Basse et la Haute Égypte, pendant les Campagnes du Gënéral Bonaparte, 3 vols. (Paris: P. Didiot, 1802), was the first publication to document Egyptian architecture as a result of Napoleon’s presence there. The 21-volume Description de l’Égypte (1809–1828), which included the findings of scholars Napoleon had hired to accompany his expedition to Egypt, added dramatically to the material Denon presented and is credited with the explosion of interest in Egyptian culture and motifs in Europe and America in the nineteenth century. See James Stevens Curl, The Egyptian Revival: Ancient Egypt as an Inspiration for Design Motifs in the West (London and New York: Routledge, 2005), pp. 204–5. 55. A pudding mold of this type is illustrated in Gerhard Kaufmann, North German Folk Pottery of the 17th to the 20th Centuries ([Washington, D.C.]: International Exhibitions Founda­tion, 1979), p. 53. 56. Leeming and Page, Mythology of Native North America, p. 87. The crayfish was also the earliest zodiac symbol for Cancer. It is depicted on a medieval woodcut, in a band of zodiac symbols surrounding the world, which Christ holds in his left hand. The woodcut is illustrated in Dorothy Alexander and Walter L. Strauss, The German Single-Leaf Woodcut, 1600–1700: A Pictorial Catalogue, 2 vols. (New York: Abrais Books, 1977), 1:302. Given the early Christian fascination with astronomy and astrology, it is possible that the popularity of the crayfish as a subject relates to the star formation. For information on Christian interpretations of zodiac symbols and their relationship to an understanding of Christ, see www.johnpratt.com/items/ docs/lds/meridian/2005/zodiac.html. The crayfish with the yellow-orange glaze is in a private collection. 57. Inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1819, OSRF. A photograph of the April 30, 1824, inventory is in research file S-14439, MESDA. 58. Inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1819, OSRF. 59. Inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1810, OSRF. 60. Ibid. See also page 113 herein. 61. For examples of chickens depicted in various decorative arts, including earthenware sculpture and needlework, see Beatrice B. Garvan, The Pennsylvania German Collection (Phila­delphia: Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1982); H. E. Comstock, The Pottery of the Shenandoah Valley Region (Winston-Salem, N.C.: Museum of Early Southern Decorative Arts, 1994); and Ernst Schlee, German Folk Art (Tokyo and New York: Kodansha International, 1980). 62. For more on symbolism, see George Ferguson, Signs and Symbols in Christian Art (1954; repr., New York: Oxford University Press, 1961), p. 14; Juan Eduardo Cirlot, A Dictionary of Symbols (1962; repr., New York: Philosophical Library, 1971), p. 51; David Barringer, “Here Comes the Rooster: A Cocky Guide for the Graphic Designer,” Voice: AIGA Journal of Design (November 30, 2005), available online at www.aiga.org/content.cfm/here-comes-the-rooster-a-cocky-guide-for-the-graphic-designer (accessed June 19, 2009). 63. See John 13:38, 17:17–27. 64. Alexander and Strauss, German Single-Leaf Woodcut, 2:478, 536. 65. Inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1806, OSRF. 66. Inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1824, OSRF. 67. “Sundry Moulds which Br. John F. Holland received from Rud. Christ 1821 in Trust and returned to Wm Benzien in Sept. 1829.” 68. Inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1819, OSRF. 69. “Sundry Moulds which Br. John F. Holland received from Rud. Christ 1821 in Trust and returned to Wm Benzien in Sept. 1829.” 70. Inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1810, and April 30, 1824, OSRF. 71. Bivins, Moravian Potters in North Carolina, p. 184, fig. 168. 72. There is no evidence that potters in the St. Asaph’s district made press-molded earthenware. 73. “Stinking Quarter” was a period term used to describe the settlement near Stinking Quarter Creek and the Great Alamance Creek in what is now Alamance County, North Carolina. For additional information about the pottery from that area, see Luke Beckerdite, Johanna Brown, and Linda Carnes-McNaughton, “Slipware from the St. Asaph’s Tradition,” Ceramics in America, edited by Robert Hunter and Beckerdite (Easthampton, Mass.: Antique Collectors’ Club, forthcoming [2010]). In 1786 Christ consigned pottery to Daniel Christman for sale in his cooper shop. The Aufseher Collegium records for November 14, 1786, state: “It was reported that Daniel Christman is selling pottery ware of Rudolph Christ in Bethabara. Br. Praezel is going to talk to him and see that he stops it.” Fries, Records of the Moravians, 2:799–800, quoting Salem Diary, May 29, 1776, and Minutes of the Aeltesten Conferenz, May 23, 1780. 74. Inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1806, OSRF. The 1827 estate inventory of Salem cabinetmaker Friedrich Behlo lists a “basket” among other ceramics. “List of Articles at F. Behlo Sale,” North Carolina Department of Archives and Records, Raleigh, North Carolina. A more common spelling of the Behlo name in Salem records is Belo. 75. Inventory of the Salem pottery, April 30, 1807, OSRF. 76. “Sundry Moulds which Br. John F. Holland received from Rud. Christ 1821 in Trust and returned to Wm Benzien in Sept. 1829.” 77. Ibid. 78. Minutes of the Aufseher Collegium, May 29, 1826, and May 12, 1828, OSRF. 79. Heinrich SchaVner (Mannheim) to the Aeltesten Conferenz (Salem), October 6, 1826, MASP. 80. Minutes of the Aeltesten Conferenz, April 14, 1834, OSRF. Although the pottery was a privately owned business in 1834, the Church regulated how many masters worked in the various trades. 81. Memoir of Johann Friedrich Holland, December 25, 1843, MASP. 82. For more on SchaVner, see, in this volume, Michael O. Hartley, “Salem Pottery after 1834: Heinrich SchaVner and Daniel Krause.” 83. Photocopy of “Household Accounts of Francis and Lisetta Fries 1837–1852,” filed under Fries Family Papers, OSRF. 84. Ibid.